IC-NRLF 


B    3    13D 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY     • 


THIS    BOOK 


TO  BE  TAKEN  FROL 


THE  READING  ROOM 


WHEN  DONE  WITH,  RETURN    AT    ONCE    TO 
PLACE  ON  THE  SHELVES 


" 


LIBRARY 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA. 


AGRIC. 
LIBRARY 


.--.-  . 

OF   TH£ 

UNIVERSITY 

OF 


THE 

CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES 

IN 

GARDEN  AND  FIELD 


A  MANUAL   OF   PRACTICE,  WITH  AND   WITHOUT   IRRIGA- 
TION, FOR  SEMI-TROPICAL  COUNTRIES. 


SECOND  EDITION—REVISED  AND  EXTENDED 


BY  EDWARD  J.  WU'KSON,  A.M. 

Dean  and  Professor  of  Agriculture  in  the  College  of  Agriculture 
of  the  University  of  California;  Director  and  Horticulturist 
of  the  Agricultural  Experiment  Station;  Author  of  "Cali- 
fornia Fruits  an'd  How  to  Grow  Them;"  Editor  of  The  Pacific 
Rural  Press;  Member  of  the  National  Council  of  Horticul- 
ture, etc. 


PACIFIC  RURAL  PRESS 

SAN  FRANCISCO 

1910 


S 


19(0 

AGRIC. 

UBRARY 


<   "\         "^       , 


m  8MA  Hi 


COPYRIGHT,  1910, 

BY 
EDWARD  J.  WICKSON  AND  PACIFIC  RURAL  PRESS. 


. 


In  view  of  the  very  appreciative  reception  which  the 
public  accorded  to  the  first  edition  of  this  work  and  the 
urgent  demand  for  its  reappearance,  it  is  deeply  regretted 
by  the  writer  that  the  present  edition  has  been  so  long 
delayed.  It  seemed,  however,  unavoidable.  The  revision 
necessary  to  include  later  results  of  experience  and  obser- 
vation and  extension  to  fitly  include  the  advancement  of 
certain  vegetables  in  commercial  volume  and  importance 
and  the  methods  of  handling  them,  largely  developed  by 
local  study  and  experiment,  have  required  much  attention. 
In  fact,  the  revision  of  the  work  has  required  a  repetition 
of  the  same  effort  which  was  invoked  in  its  initial  prep- 
aration, and  for  which  the  following  claim  was  made  in 
the  preface  to  the  First  Edition : 

' '  There  are  very  good  reasons  why  the  task  of  preparing 
.such  a  book  has  been  so  long  delayed.  The  subject  is 
appalling  in  its  intricacy.  Conditions  of  soil  and  climate 
in  California  are  varied  to  the  last  degree,  and  practice 
must  vary  with  them.  No  matter  how  skilful  and  success- 
ful a  man  may  be  in  his  particular  locality,  his  experience 
can  only  be  a  safe  guide  to  those  who  happen  to  work 
under  similar  conditions.  For  this  reason,  though  there 
have  been  admirable  local  writers  on  garden  practice  from 
the  beginning,  their  writings,  no  matter  how  diligently 
collected  and  how  well  printed,  would  not  constitute  a 
suggestive  treatise  unless  the  enquirer  should  analyze  the 
local  conditions  and  practice  and  translate  them  into 
terms  of  wide  applicability.  To  do  this  it  is  necessary  that 
the  principles  underlying  the  successful  practice  should  be 
discerned  and  the  significance  of  conditions  be  interpreted. 
This  task  could  only  be  discharged  by  one  who  has  had 
opportunity  for  wide  collection  of  data,  and  for  extended 
personal  observation  as  well,  and  one  for  whom  labor 
would  be  continually  lightened  by  enthusiastic  delight  in 
the  subject  itself.  All  these  advantages  the  writer  can 


211786 


frankly  claim,  but  how  well  they  have  been  employed  in 
this  work  it  is  for  the  reader  to  judge." 

In  a  work  of  this  kind,  involving  the  experience  and 
observation  of  many  individuals  during  a  considerable 
period  of  time,  it  is  impossible  to  render  a  full  account 
of  the  writer's  indebtedness.  Whenever  direct  use  has 
been  made  of  the  experience  and  methods  which  others 
have  formulated,  an  attempt  has  been  made  to  give  defi- 
nite credit  to  the  source.  When  such  accounts  of  experi- 
ence are  used  without  citation  of  publication  credit  is  in 
most  cases  due  to  the  columns  of  the  Pacific  Rural  Press,  a 
journal  which  has  been  the  chief  medium  for  publication 
of  information  of  this  kind  for  the  last  forty  years. 

E.  J.  WICKSON. 
University  of  California,  Berkeley,  August,  1910. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 

I.  Vegetable  Growing  in  California 9 

II.  Farmer's  Gardens  in  California 19 

III.  California  Climate  as  Related  to  Vegetable  Growing.  28 

IV.  Vegetable  Soils  of  California 37 

V.  Garden  Irrigation 47 

VI.  Garden  Drainage  in  California 74 

VII.  Cultivation    81 

VIII.  Fertilization    95 

Villa.  Garden  Protection   106 

VIII6.  Weeds  in  California 116 

VIIIc.  Seed  Growing  in  California 120 

IX.  Garden  Location  and  Arrangement 129 

X.  The  Planting  Season  138 

XI.  Propagation    155 

XII.  Artichokes    172 

XIII.  Asparagus     177 

XIV.  Beans    188 

XV.  Beet    206 

XVI.  Cabbage  Family  221 

XVII.  Carrot,  Parsnip,  and  Salsify 237 

XVIII.  Celery    244 

XIX.  Chicory    255 

XX.  Corn   259 

XXI.  Cucumber    266 

XXII.  Egg  Plant 270 

XXIII.  Lettuce    272 

XXIV.  Melons    277 

XXV.  Onion  Family   289 

XXVI.  Peas 304 

XXVII.  Peppers    311 

-XXVIII.  Potatoes  316 

XXIX.  Radishes    328 

XXX.  Rhubarb    331 

XXXI.  Spinach     335 

XXXII.  Squashes     337 

XXXIII.  Tomato    342 

XXXIV.  Turnip  351 

XXXV.  Vegetable  Sundries   .353 


CHAPTER  I. 
VEGETABLE  GROWING  IN  CALIFORNIA. 

Though  California  enjoys  world-wide  fame  for  fruits  it 
is  an  interesting  fact  that  the  State  first  won  horticultural 
recognition  by  achievements  in  vegetable  growing.  Gar- 
den seeds  were  more  easily  transported  than  trees  and 
formed  a  part  of  the  scant  baggage  of  many  gold-seekers. 
Seeds  were  also  freely  sent  by  home  friends  or  quickly  ob- 
tained on  orders  to  Eastern  dealers  as  soon  as  the  agri- 
culturists among  the  argonauts  saw  their  opportunity  in 
the  fabulous  rates  which  esculents  commanded.  Results 
too  were  more  quickly  secured  with  garden  seeds  than 
with  fruit  trees.  Only  a  few  weeks  after  their  planting 
the  grower  saw  that  he  was  dealing  with  forcing  and  de- 
veloping agencies  in  climate  and  soil  more  effective  than 
any  he  had  known  in  his  old  home  and  he  was  quite  as  sur- 
priesd  at  his  own  achievements  as  his  Eastern  friends  were 
incredulous  of  his  descriptions  of  them.  They  were  ready 
to  believe  anything  about  gold,  because  their  conception 
of  a  gold  country  involved  its  traditional  right  to  be  fa- 
bulous, but  such  a  concession  was  not  to  be  made  to  com- 
mon vegetables.  Eastern  people  knew  cabbages  and  beans 
and  to  attribute  to  them  colossal  dimensions  and  to  allege 
that  they  grew  from  seed  to  succotash  without  a  drop  of 
rain  was  simply  coarse  lying.  It  is  easy  to  see  why  a 
milder  word  would  be  considered  inadequate,  for  the  fol- 
lowing was  one  of  California's  first  horticultural  procla- 
mations : 

"On  land  owned  and  cultivated  by  Mr.  James  Williams, 
of  Santa  Cruz,  an  onion  grew  to  the  enormous  weight  of 
21  pounds,  and  a  turnip  was  grown  which  equaled  exactly 
in  size  the  top  of  a  flour  barrel.  On  land  owned  and  cul- 


10  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES. 

tivated  by  Thomas  Fallen,  a  cabbage  grew  which  meas- 
ured, while  growing,  13  feet  and  6  inches  around  its  body. 
The  weight  is  not  known.  A  beet  grown  by  Mr.  Isaac 
Brannan,  at  San  Jose,  weighed  63  pounds;  carrots  three 
feet  in  length,  weighed  40  pounds.  At  Stockton,  a  turnip 
weighed  100  pounds,  and  at  a  dinner  for  12  persons,  of  a 
single  potato,  larger  than  the  size  of  an  ordinary  hat,  all 
partook,  leaving  at  least  the  half  untouched." — Rep.  of 
the  Com.  of  Patents  for  1851 :  Part  II,  p.  4. 

These  statements  are  vouched  for  by  12  persons  whose 
names  are  given.  To  save  the  respect  of  their  Eastern 
friends  and  at  the  same  time  to  loyally  make  known  the 
horticultural  glory  of  the  land  they  had  found,  the  early 
vegetable  growers  had  recourse  to  public  exhibitions.  The 
first  was  held  in  the  fall  of  1851  in  San  Francisco.  The  ex- 
hibits did  not  quite  equal  the  verdict  of  the  horticultural 
jury  cited  above  but  they  were  notable,  e.  g. :  a  red  beet 
from  San  Jose,  28  inches  in  circumference,  weight  47 
pounds ;  beets  two  months  from  seed  in  San  Francisco,  six 
and  seven  pounds;  cabbage  from  Mission  San  Jose  seven 
feet  in  circumference,  weight  56  pounds;  cucumbers  18 
inches  in  length;  onions  five,  six  and  seven  inches  in  dia- 
meter from  a  product  of  nearly  70,000  pounds  to  the  acre ; 
potatoes  from  Santa  Cruz,  125  pounds  from  the  five  vines 
of  a  single  hill  and  one  potato  from  Santa  Clara  13  inches 
in  length,  weighing  71/4  pounds ;  pumpkins  and  squashes 
from  100  to  140  pounds  each. 

The  demonstrations  furnished  by  such  public  exhibi- 
tions, of  which  there  were  several  in  the  early  years  of 
San  Francisco,  were  accepted  at  the  East,  and  even  such 
conservative  experts  as  the  late  Dr.  Warder,  of  Ohio, 
were  led  to  exclaim,  as  early  as  1852:  "truly  this  is  a 
wonderful  country."  To  fully  appreciate  the  significance 
of  the  facts  it  must  be  remembered  that  the  varieties  were 
those  of  nearly  half  a  century  ago  and  the  culture  was 
wholly  lacking  in  the.  intensive  arts  which  are  common 
property  of  vegetable  growers  of  the  present  day.  The 


PIONEER  VEGETABLES  11 

immensity  of  the  specimens  and  of  the  crop,  wonderful  to 
the  grower  and  incredible  to  the  distant  hearer,  was 
simply  the  exponent  of  the  capacity  of  a  virgin  soil,  in 
which  fertility  had  been  accumulating  for  ages,  and  the 
forcing  power  of  a  climate  wholly  new  to  Americans.  In 
later  years  California  has  surpassed  even  these  early  stan- 
dards through  the  employment  of  higher  horticultural 
skill,  as  will  be  described  presently,  but  it  was  upon  the 
achievements  of  the  vegetable  growers  at  the  very  begin- 
ning of  the  American  occupation  that  California's  horti- 
cultural reputation  was  established. 

How  the  Pioneers  Prospered  by  Vegetable  Growing. — 
It  would  be  easy  to  collect  quite  a  volume  of  interesting 
instances  of  how  success  was  attained  in  the  early  days, 
but  a  single  experience  must  suffice.  It  illustrates  both 
the  resources  of  the  pioneers  and  the  country  which  they 
found.  G.  G.  Briggs  left  New  York  State  in  April,  1849, 
and  arrived  in  California  in  October  of  the  same  year, 
driving  an  ox  team  and  walking  most  of  the  way.  He 
says: 

"When  I  arrived  in  California  I  saw  at  once  that  there 
were  other  means  of  accumulating  gold  besides  digging  it 
from  the  mines ;  that  miners  and  all  classes  would  need 
turnips  and  cabbage  and  other  products  of  the  soil;  that 
even  then  many  were  suffering  with  scurvy  and  other  dis- 
eases for  the  want  of  fresh  vegetable  food.  The  large  crops 
of  native  grapes  on  the  banks  of  the  Sacramento  were 
proof  of  the  productive  capacity  of  the  California  soil  and 
climate.  Reaching  Sacramento,  our  party  of  four  had  no 
money  and  no  property  but  our  wagon  and  three  yoke  of 
oxen.  I  could  find  no  work  whatever.  I  got  trusted  by  a 
storekeeper  for  a  sack  of  walnuts  and  sold  them  to  passers 
by  the  teacupful  and  in  five  days  cleared  $50.  We  sold  our 
oxen  and  with  my  part  of  the  money  I  went  to  San  Fran- 
cisco to  buy  garden  seeds  with  which  to  start  vegetable 
growing  on  a  piece  of  land  I  had  previously  seen  in  the 
bottom  of  the  Yuba  river,  near  the  present  site  of  Marys- 


12  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES. 

ville.  As  it  was  too  early  in  the  season  to  plant,  I  bought 
a  whale-boat  and  began  freighting  goods;  and  by  spring 
I  had  accumulated  about  $3000.  The  last  load  freighted 
by  me  included  a  ton  of  potatoes,  which  cost  me  40c.  a 
pound.  My  seeds  and  potatoes  were  planted  in  March, 
1851,  and  everything  was  doing  well  until  cut  to  the 
ground  by  frost  on  April  19.  My  potatoes,  however,  came 
up  again  and  made  a  fair  crop.  I  was  not  to  be  cheated 
out  of  my  vegetable  crop,  and  started  out  again  to  buy 
seeds,  but  could  find  none,  either  in  Sacramento  or  in  San 
Francisco.  Returning  to  Sacramento,  I  chanced  upon 
some  watermelon  seeds  on  the  boat,  and  bought  the  lot  for 
$20.  With  these  I  planted  five  acres,  and  cleaned  up 
about  $5000  dollars  for  one  summer's  work.  The  next 
year  I  planted  about  26  acres  of  watermelons,  and  in  the 
fall  I  found  I  had  $20,000  for  my  summer's  work." 

With  the  money  Mr.  Briggs  returned  to  New  York  for 
his  family  and  brought  also,  on  his  return,  some  fruit  trees, 
and  laid  the  foundation  of  his  subsequent  brilliant  rec- 
ord as  a  pioneer  fruit  grower.  Others  followed  about  the 
same  course  and  thus  vegetable  growing  became  not  only 
the  basis  of  California's  horticultural  reputation  but  ac- 
tually furnished  the  capital  for  the  ventures  which  dem- 
onstrated the  possibility  of  our  great  fruit  industries;  mflj 

Vegetables  at  the  Missions  and  the  Ranches. — The  Am- 
erican pioneers  found  little  at  the  establishments  of  the  old 
regime  that  was  instructive  or  even  suggestive.  In  fact 
the  Spanish  conception  of  the  agricultural  capacity  and 
adaptability  of  the  country  was  not  only  inadequate;  it 
was  erroneous  as  well.  Though  the  missions  had  gardens 
they  were  almost  destitute  of  gardening  as  we  understand 
the  term  and  whether  the  Spanish  and  Mexican  settlers 
were  deterred  from  vegetable  growing  by  their  distaste 
for  any  physical  exertion,  away  from  the  saddle,  or  by 
their  ignorance  of  the  fitness  of  the  country,  is  not  a  ques- 
tion of  much  importance  in  this  connection.  Hittell  says : 
"Gardening  was  not  attempted  except  on  a  very  small 


VEGETABLES  ON  THE  RANCHES          13 

scale  and  only  for  such  vegetables  as  could  be  produced 
with  very  little  labor.  Potatoes  and  turnips  were  rare  and 
of  garden  vegetables  in  general  it  may  be  said  that  until 
the  advent  of  foreign  settlers  they  were  scarcely  culti- 
vated." Bryant,  who  visited  California  in  1846  and  ex- 
amined the  Los  Angeles  gardens,  saw  only  onions,  pota- 
toes, red  peppers  and  beans  and  added  that  he  believed 
other  vegetables  would  grow  as  well  as  they. 

Illustrating  the  inability  of  the  rancheros  to  understand 
the  wide  applicability  of  the  simple  horticultural  lessons 
given  at  the  missions,  it  is  related  that  at  the  time  of  the 
American  settlement  most  of  the  Spanish  families  living 
in  different  parts  of  Alameda  and  Contra  Costa  had  their 
garden  patches  near  the  Mission  San  Jose.  They  knew 
fruit  and  vegetables  would  grow  there,  because  they  had 
seen  them  in  the  mission  gardens  and  they  did  not  know 
they  would  grow  elsewhere  and  had  not  taken  the  trouble 
to  find  out.  Thus  the  Estudillos  of  San  Leandro  had  their 
garden  patch  at  the  Mission  San  Jose  and  transported 
their  vegetables  15  or  20  miles  while  right  outside  the  door 
of  their  house  at  San  Leandro  was  the  finest  garden  soil 
in  the  world,  and  they  did  not  know  it ! 

Neither  the  mission  gardeners  nor  the  rancheros  had  any 
idea  of  the  capacity  of  the  country  for  summer  crops  with- 
out irrigation  and  without  any  adequate  conception  of  the 
offices  of  cultivation  they  could  hardly  have  attained  it. 
Hence,  not  having  the  irrigation  facilities  which  were  de- 
veloped at  the  missions,  and  not  being  inclined  to  any 
labor  by  which  their  own  lands  could  be  irrigated,  they 
would  naturally  go  to  the  water  rather  than  attempt  to 
bring  the  water  to  their  land  for  anything  more  than  stock 
and  domestic  uses.  Almost  at  sight  the  American  pioneer 
horticulturists  discerned  possibilities  and  adaptations  in 
the  soil  and  climate  which  their  predecessors  had  not  dis- 
covered during  75  years  of  occupation.  The  relations  of 
race  to  horticultural  progress  are  very  interesting. 
Vicissitudes  of  Early  Vegetable  Growing. — Those  who 


14  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES. 

first  discerned  the  fact  that  it  was  easier  to  get  gold  with 
the  hoe  than  with  the  pick,  realized  market  prices  as  sur- 
prisingly great  as  the  vegetables  they  grew.  John  M. 
Horner,  of  Alameda  county,  is  reported  to  have  cleared 
about  $150,000  from  his  large  venture  of  800  acres  in  vege- 
table growing  in  1851,  and  others  gained  much  more  per 
acre  than  he,  with  smaller  operations  which  did  not  re- 
quire so  much  high-priced  labor.  But  the  demonstration 
of  their  success  proved  its  destruction.  Plantations  were 
made  out  of  all  proportion  to  requirements  and  disastrous 
overproduction  speedily  ensued.  The  second  year  after 
the  exhibition  in  San  Francisco,  to  which  allusion  has  been 
made,  there  was  a  collapse.  The  following  account  of  po- 
tato growing  shows  how  sharp  was  the  turn  in  affairs : 

In  1852  Beard  &  Homer's  potato  crop  at  Alvarado  av- 
eraged 200  sacks  (about  12  tons)  to  the  acre,  and  sold  for 
upwards  of  $100,000.  The  following  year  everybody  cul- 
tivated them.  In  Pajaro  valley  20,000  sacks  were  one  day 
bet  on  a  horse  race.  Beard  &  Horner  contracted  theirs  in 
advance  at  2%c.  a  pound  to  San  Francisco  merchants. 
Garrison  took  1,000,000  pounds,  which  were  never  re- 
moved, but  were  allowed  to  rot  on  tlje  ground.  Saunders 
&  Co.  purchased  a  large  quantity,  which  they  stowed  away 
in  a  hulk  in  the  bay.  As  warm  weather  came  on  the  pota- 
toes commenced  growing  and  threatened  to  burst  the  ves- 
sel open.  They  commenced  dumping  the  potatoes  into  the 
bay,  but  the  harbor  master  stopped  it,  and  the  owners  had 
to  pay  for  their  removal  to  another  locality. 

With  the  first  disaster  the  charm  and  spirit  of  pioneer 
vegetable  growing  passed  away.  There  was,  of  course, 
quick  recovery  in  values  and  very  profitable  business  dune, 
but  it  was  not  the  same  grand  affair  and  it  did  not  accord 
with  the  adventurous  spirit  of  the  day.  Small  growers 
near  the  cities  and  the  mining  camps  did  well,  but  there 
was  not  dash  enough  about  market  gardening  for  Ameri- 
cans and  it  was  soon  given  over  to  immigrants  from  the 
south  of  Europe  and  China  and  has  never  been  recovered. 


FOREIGN  COMPETITION.  15 

Field  growth  of  staple  vegetables  on  a  large  scale  has  been 
continued  by  Americans,  but  even  in  this  line  he  has  often 
been  obliged  to  withdraw  from  competition  with  Chinese, 
Portuguese  and  Italians  with  their  cheaper  labor  supply 
and  living  expenses.  Great  enterprises  in  live  stock, 
wheat,  wool  and  fruit  afforded  opportunities  more  to  the 
American  taste  than  vegetable  growing.  The  American 
settler  had  incomparably  more  energy  and  industrial  am- 
bition than  his  predecessors,  the  Mexicans,  but  he  shared 
with  them  a  liking  for  doing  his  work  in  the  saddle  or  on 
the  seat  of  a  riding  plow,  cultivator  or  harvester.  Within 
a  decade  from  the  date  of  the  American  demonstration  of 
the  unique  fitness  of  California  for  vegetable  growing 
there  arose  occasion  for  frequent  exhortations  to  Califor- 
nia farmers  to  restore  the  garden  to  its  proper  place  in 
farm  plan  and  policy,  and  yet  California  farmers  neglected 
to  supply  their  own  tables  and  the  proper  adornment  of 
their  house  yards  until  the  ranch  home  in  this  land  of 
beauty  and  grand  horticultural  opportunities  became  a  by- 
word for  unthrift  and  desolation.  Fortunately  there  has 
been  such  wonderful  improvement  during  the  last  decade 
that  these  epithets  no  longer  apply  to  California  country 
homes. 

Competition  with  Foreigners. — One  of  the  difficulties  of 
the  present  situation  is  that  while  the  American-born  Cali- 
fornian  has  decried  vegetable  growing,  the  immigrants 
from  southern  Europe  and  eastern  Asia  have  strongly 
entrenched  themselves  in  it.  Now  the  competition  which 
the  American  grower  has  to  encounter  is  depressing  and 
discouraging.  And  yet  the  situation  is  not  at  all  hope- 
less. The  foreigners  are  not,  as  a  rule,  progressive.  They 
are  frugal  and  industrious  to  an  extreme  and  they  under- 
take a  great  deal  to  please  their  customers  with  variety 
as  well  as  low  prices.  In  some  points  the  American  com- 
petitor can  learn  from  them  to  advantage.  But  it  is  quite 
easy  to  surpass  them  in  quality  by  constant  effort  for  im- 
proved varieties,  which  they  are  slow  to  introduce,  and 
to  cheapen  production  by  the  use  of  horse  labor  and  im- 


16  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES. 

r  *     -inr 

proved  tools,  while  they  plod  along  with  hand  methods 
and  appliances.  If  the  California  farmer  should  put  forth 
the  same  effort  to  adapt  conditions  to  ends  and  to  keep 
himself  at  the  very  front  in  materials  and  arts  of  produc- 
tion in  the  growing  and  selling  of  vegetables  that  he  has 
employed  in  the  growing  and  selling  of  fruit,  we  should 
hear  far  less  of  the  superiority  of  the  foreigner  in  the  vege- 
table garden. 

Recent  Achievements  in  Vegetable  Growing, — Although 
California  horticulturists  as  a  class  are  charged  with  ne- 
glect of  vegetable  growing,  and  though  it  must  be  admit- 
ted that  the  term  horticulture  and  its  derivatives  are  al- 
most wholly  used  in  California  to  signify  fruit  growing,  it 
is  an  important  fact  that  we  have  vegetable  growers  who 
hold  the  country's  record  for  volumes  and  uniqueness  of 
special  products.  A  new  phase  of  the  vegetable  growing 
industry  of  the  State  arose  with  the  openings  of  the  over- 
land railways.  The  Eastern  demand  for  some  kind  of 
vegetables  has  led  to  their  production  of  several  import- 
ant vegetable  crops  in  very  large  volume  and  has  thus 
given  us  specialty  farming  in  vegetables  somewhat  com- 
parable with  our  great  fruit  specialties.  Along  this  line 
vegetable  growing  has  seemed  worthy  of  American  effort 
and  our  people  have  been  proud  to  undertake  production 
by  the  carload  or  trainload  of  the  very  crops  which  they 
would  scorn  to  think  of  growing  by  the  wagonload.  The 
features  of  this  line  of  production  will  appear  in  connec- 
tion with  the  discussion  of  the  special  kinds  of  vegetables 
which  are  involved  in  it. 

The  statistics  of  vegetable  shipment  beyond  State  lines 
as  given  by  an  expert  authority  for  the  years  specified  is 
as  follows : 

Shipment  of  Fresh  Vegetables  by  Rail  and  Sea. — (Car- 
loads of  10  tons  each):  1902,  6130;  1903,  7839;  1904, 
4429;  1905,  5961;  1906,  8982;  1907,  4808;  1908,  9350;  1909, 
8978. 

The  grower  for  shipment  is  a  specialist;  he  grows  but 
few  kinds,  and  often  one  kind  only,  and  it  becomes  nee- 


THE  COMMERCIAL  PRODUCT.  17 

essary  for  him  to  study  the  particular  kind  he  raises  in  all 
its  forms,  not  only  as  to  selection  of  variety,  but  to  ob- 
tain the  very  best  strain  of  that  variety.  He  also  has  to 
study  very  closely  the  most  economical  methods  of  plant- 
ing, cultivation,  harvesting,  and  marketing.  Location  in 
many  instances  determines  what  he  shall  raise.  The  chief 
point  to  consider  is  to  raise  that  vegetable  which  succeeds 
best  at  the  right  time  for  shipment  and  to  select  land  and 
location  which  favors  that  achievement. 

Cajined  Vegetables. — Another  form  in  which  our  vege- 
tables are  reaching  distant  markets  in  considerable  quan- 
tities is  the  product  of  the  canneries.  The  following  is  a 
statement  of  the  total  pack  of  vegetables  in  the  years 
stated : 

California  Product  of  Canned  Vegetables. 
(cases  of  24  cans). 

1907.  1908.  1909. 

Asparagus   174,435       238,420  410,965 

Beans    74,040         39,765  12,435 

Peas   51,565         88,510  104,010 

Tomatoes 1,539,310     1,106,875  672,260 

Other  kinds 102,405          28,315  43,050 

Drying  vegetables  has  been  pursued  in  a  small  way  for 
a  number  of  years.  The  rapid  extension  of  the  mining  in- 
terest in  remote  parts  of  the  Pacific  Coast  created  a  quick 
demand  for  dried  vegetables  and  it  was  thought  that  they 
would  constitute  an  important  item  in  distant  shipments, 
but  whenever  transportation  is  established  the  superior 
succulence  of  fresh  and  canned  vegetables  discounts  the 
dried  product. 

The  volume  of  California  vegetable  products  includes, 
of  course,  dry  beans,  beet  sugar,  etc.,  which  are  mentioned 
in  the  chapters  relating  thereto.  - 

Diversity  in  Garden  Practice  in  Calif ornia.— It  is  hardly 
too  much  to  say  that  our  garden  practice  is  an  epitome  of 
all  ancient  and  modern  cultural  arts,  for  we  have  both 
survival  of  very  old  methods  and  subterfuges  and  wider 


18  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES. 

demonstrations  of  the  truth  of  advanced  conceptions  of 
cultural  efficacy  than  can  probably  be  found  in  any  other 
State.  This  is  not  due  to  any  purpose  or  design  on  the 
part  of  our  people.  It  is  merely  their  notable  resources  of 
adaptability  and  ingenuity  brought  to  bear  upon  the  wide 
range  of  conditions  involved  in  our  combined  winter  and 
summer  gardening  which  concentrates  in  a  single  common- 
wealth all  the  diversity  one  might  encounter  if  he  were 
a  peripatetic  gardener  with  an  itinerary  extending  from 
Ireland  to  Algeria.  Nor  is  this  remark  intended  merely 
as  a  reference  to  the  natural  diversity  of  the  different 
parts  of  the  State,  because  success  may  require  more  or 
less  distinct  methods  in  summer  and  in  winter  in  the  same 
region.  In  short,  the  California  gardener  has  to  know  arid- 
land  practice  and  humid-land  practice  and  call  them  both 
into  requisition  equally  or  incline  toward  one  or  the  other 
as  his  conditions  demand. 

It  takes  a  man  of  some  depth  and  breadth  to  do  this, 
and  this  is  the  reason  why  land  owners  who  have  brought 
skilled  horticultural  practitioners  from  abroad  to  develop 
their  properties  have  experienced  so  many  disappoint- 
ments. It  requires  head  as  well  as  handicraft  to  master 
the  situation,  as  subsequent  chapters  will  suggest. 


CHAPTER  II. 
FARMER'S  GARDENS  IN  CALIFORNIA. 

It  has  already  been  admitted  that  there  has  been,  ever 
since  the  development  of  large  farming  enterprises  was 
seen  to  be  possible  in  California,  an  indisposition  on  the 
part  of  our  farmers  to  engage  in  vegetable  growing.  Sev- 
eral reasons  are  urged  as  explanatory  of  this  very  wide- 
spread sentiment  and  some  of  them  may  be  cited : 

First :  The  proper  conduct  of  a  large  specialty  farm  gives 
no  time  for  gardening — not  even  for  the  direction  of  work 
upon  it — and  it  is  better  to  buy  vegetables  than  incur  the 
worry  of  a  garden  patch. 

Second:  In  small  specialty  farming  on  a  limited  acre- 
age of  especially  fitted  and  high  priced  land,  it  is  not  prof- 
itable to  set  apart  land  for  vegetables  when  its  yield  in 
the  special  product  may  pay  several  times  the  cost  of 
purchased  vegetables. 

Third:  Success  with  vegetables  in  California  is  very 
difficult  to  attain — especially  so  in  certain  parts  of  the 
State — and  a  farmer  is  more  apt  to  lose  than  to  gain  by 
any  venture  he  may  make  in  that  line. 

Fourth :  It  is  impossible  to  have  a  garden  without  irri- 
gation water,  even  on  lands  which  with  ordinary  rainfall 
will  yield  cereals  and  carry  productive  deciduous  fruit 
trees  if  they  are  given  good  summer  cultivation. 

How  Far  Are  the  Objections  Tenable?— It  must  be 
granted  that  there  is  some  force  in  the  demurrer  which  the 
California  farmer  often  enters  against  his  indictment  for 
lack  of  thrift  and  neglect  of  opportunities  in  not  under- 
taking to  produce  his  home  supply  of  fresh,  crisp  and 
wholesome  vegetables  instead  of  depending  upon  the  stale 
and  wilted  goods  of  the  itinerant  vendors.  It  is  perfectly 


20  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES. 

conceivable  that,  under  certain  conditions,  the  farmer  had 
better  buy  food  supplies  rather  than  produce  them,  con- 
sequently the  general  denunciation  of  the  unthrift  of  the 
California  farmer,  which  is  often  indulged  in  by  those  who 
know  little  of  the  local  situation  and  conditions,  is  really 
unwarranted.  California  conditions,  both  in  nature  and 
in  farm  policy,  are  so  varied  that  criticisms  and  upbraid- 
ings  are  often  misplaced.  And  yet  it  is  perfectly  true  that 
vegetables  should  be  grown  on  farms  in  California  much 
more  generally  and  in  far  greater  variety  than  they  have 
been  hitherto.  It  is  not  the  intention  of  the  writer  to  urge 
this  improvement  upon  sentimental  considerations  nor  to 
claim,  as  many  seem  inclined  to  do,  that  it  is  possible  to 
compass  it  by  the  fiat  method.  Too  many  of  our  critics 
seem  to  hold  that  all  the  farmer  has  to  do  is  to  declare  that 
there  shall  be  a  garden  and  one  will  spring  up  around  his 
footsteps  with  ideal  succulence,  richness  and  deliciousness. 
It  will  be  better  to  attempt  to  show  that  there  is  an  oppor- 
tunity, providing  its  requirements  be  duly  met,  and  that 
there  are  really  fewer  difficulties  in  the  way  and  greater 
rewards  for  prompt  and  intelligent  effort  than  many  of 
our  farmers  imagine.  And  this  can  be  shown  without 
elaborate  argument.  A  more  striking  demonstration  will 
probably  lie  in  showing  to  the  many  the  success  of  the  few, 
in  order  that  they  may  draw  therefrom  lessons  and  ex- 
hortations for  their  own  incitement  and  success.  This  ser- 
vice will  be  constantly  held  in  view  as  this  work  proceeds. 

Essentials  to  Success  in  Gardening. — There  are  three  re- 
quisites to  success  in  gardening  and  they  may  be  arranged 
in  alliteration  thus,  Will,  Water,  Work.  They  also  stand 
in  the  order  of  their  relative  importance  in  California. 
Without  a  strong  impulse  In  the  will  it  is  vain  to  expect 
work  and  water  to  do  their  best.  If  the  will  is  born  of 
taste,  liking,  enthusiasm,  the  task  will  be  delightful  and 
the  results  grand  in  every  way.  Unless  one  has  some  joy 
in  the  rich,  moist  earth  as  it  yields  its  fragrance  to  the 
touch  of  his  tools;  unless  he  can  glory  in  the  quick,  re- 


ESSENTIALS  TO  SUCCESS.  21 

sponsive  growth  of  the  plant  when  his  culture  suits  its 
nature,  and  unless  he  finds  pride  and  satisfaction  in  the 
armful  of  delicious  vegetables  which  he  brings  each  day 
to  his  helpmeet,  with  the  dewdrops  of  the  early  morning 
still  sparkling  upon  their  foliage,  his  gardening  will  never 
be  an  easy  task  though  it  may  be  conscientiously  and  suc- 
cessfully discharged. 

But  although  it  is  possible  to  make  a  good  and  profitable 
garden  from  a  sense  of  duty  and  though  work  will  reach 
its  due  reward  even  though  one  can  never  bring  himself  to 
see  that  the  ''primal  curse"  of  the  race  is  really  its  op- 
portunity, it  is  a  fact  that  without  work  there  can  be  no 
successful  gardening  in  California.  Perhaps  work  is  the 
price  of  success  everywhere ;  perhaps  the  aggregate  of 
muscular  effort  proportional  to  the  result  is  less  in  Cali- 
fornia than  elsewhere  but  let  no  one  deceive  himself  that 
the  California  garden  will  make  itself.  The  item  of  work 
may  be  reduced  to  a  minimum  by  intelligent  direction.  In- 
sight and  observation  will  teach  just  when  each  act  should 
be  performed  to  secure  the  richest  co-operative  response 
from  nature's  forces,  and  to  miss  this  advantage  will  en- 
tail a  vast  amount  of  unnecessary  effort,  but  the  modicum 
of  incisive  action  must  be  bestowed.  It  will  appear  later, 
in  connection  with  the  discussion  of  the  planting  season, 
that  timely  work  is  a  prime  factor — in  fact  the  pivot  upon 
which  the  effort  may  turn  from  delight  to  disappointment. 
California  conditions,  though  exceedingly  generous  are 
equally  exacting — probably  more  exacting  than  those  of 
humid  climates.  It  is  clear  then  that  not  only  is  work  an 
essential,  but  it  must  be  work  well  directed  and  main- 
tained. The  third  essential  is  water.  By  due  understand- 
ing and  employment  of  the  characters  of  the  natural  grow- 
ing season  and  of  the  soil  in  each  locality,  it  is  possible  to 
produce  a  great  wealth  and  variety  of  vegetables  in  most 
parts  of  the  State  without  irrigation.  In  some  parts  suc- 
cession or  rotation  can  be  carried  through  the  year  by  the 
most  intelligent  cultivation  to  prevent  evaporation  or  by 


22  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES. 

the  use  of  land  naturally  and  continuously  moistened  by 
underflow.  Still,  the  far  greater  area  of  the  State  will  not 
give  satisfactory  vegetable  supply  without  additions  to 
rainfall  and  the  irrigated  garden  should  therefore  be  the 
end  in  view  in  most  of  our  farm  planning.  Fortunately 
this  is  not  nearly  so  difficult  to  attain  as  is  commonly 
thought,  as  will  be  shown  in  a  later  chapter,  and  if  the 
farm-architect  have  the  will  to  work,  he  will  not  long  lack 
the  water  to  insure  the  perfection  of  his  desires  in  his 
home  garden. 

Possible  Exceptions. — These  faint  suggestions  of  the  re- 
quirements of  success  in  gardening,  even  on  the  narrow, 
farm  plan,  may  intimate  that  broadside  exhortations  to 
vegetable  growing  are  not  wise  and  shed  some  light  upon 
the  reasonableness  of  those  who  claim  that  they  can  not 
profitably  or  successfully  undertake  it.  Our  great  specialty 
farmers  are  apt  to  have  their  heads  and  hands  too  full  to 
think  of  personally  mastering  gardening  practice  in  a  pe- 
culiar country.  The  attempts  which  have  been  made  to 
transform  the  ordinary  farm  hand  into  a  gardener  have 
usually  only  yielded  disappointment,  and  the  professional 
gardeners  who  are  really  worthy  of  the  name  find  it  too 
easy  to  acquire  enterprises  of  their  own  to  warrant  their 
wage-earning  on  the  farm  basis.  It  might  as  well  be  con- 
ceded at  once  that  many  large  farmers  will  do  better  to 
purchase  their  supplies  from  some  man  who  has  the  knowl- 
edge and  the  soil  and  water  facilities  for  successful  pro- 
duction. 

It  is  also  true  that  in  many  cases  the  small  scale  specialty 
farmer,  working  a  small  tract  of  high-priced  land  for  a 
high-value  product,  does  well  to  plant  his  entire  holding, 
except  his  house  site,  to  this  product.  But  it  is  also  true 
that  other  men  of  this  class  will  find  the  reservation  of  a 
garden  area  a  most  profitable  proceeding.  What  each 
shall  do  depends  upon  his  personal  traits  and  tastes. 

But  though  these  exceptions  exist  and  should  be  consid- 
ered in  any  claims  that  are  made  in  favor  of  a  much  wider 


FARM  GARDENS.  23 

enlistment  of  California  farmers  in  gardening  for  the  pro- 
duction, at  least,  of  home  supplies,  the  fact  remains  that 
farm  gardens  should  be  multiplied  and  that,  with  proper 
spirit  and  effort  and  appreciation  of  their  value,  they  can 
be  more  easily  secured  than  the  popular  impression  among 
California  farmers  would  indicate.  There  is  a  wealth  of 
experience  to  show  that  where  good  timely  work  is  done, 
under  conditions  either  naturally  favorable  or  rendered 
favorable  by  moderate  effort  or  investment,  very  gratify- 
ing results  have  been  attained  on  farms  in  all  parts  of 
California. 

Benefits  of  Farm  Gardens. — It  is  trite  to  build  arguments 
on  this  theme,  but. the  points  can  hardly  be  sharpened  by 
comment.  The  dietetic  benefit  of  vegetable  food  in  variety 
has  been  demonstrated  both  by  individual  experience  and 
by  the  food  studies  which  are  now  being  systematically 
pursued  both  in  this  country  and  Europe.  Working  force, 
thinking  force,  the  quality  of  success  in  all  lines  of  human 
effort,  are  all  promoted  by  a  generous,  well-balanced  food 
supply. 

The  hygienic  benefit  of  food,  including  due  amount  of 
the  succulent,  aromatic,  tonic  and  assimilable  characters 
which  are  inherent  in  fresh  and  well- grown  vegetables,  is 
universally  recognized  by  authorities.  The  truth  has  par- 
ticular force  in  a  region  of  high  temperatures  like  Cali- 
fornia. The  so-called  cooling  of  the  blood,  the  develop- 
ment of  resistance  to  malaria,  the  free  and  healthful  op- 
eration of  the  various  functions  of  the  body,  are  unques- 
tionably promoted  by  vegetable  food. 

The  economic  benefit  of  home-grown  esculents  has  been 
most  clearly  discerned  during  the  last  few  years  and  the 
result  is  a  gratifying  increase  of  interest  in  farm  garden- 
ing. More  vegetables  have  been  grown  recently  on  Cali- 
fornia farms  than  ever  before.  The  low  market  values  of 
some  of  our  most  important  special  products  have  given 
an  impetus  to  diversification  of  crops  which  a  century  of 
exhortation  could  not  have  compassed.  California  farmers 


24  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES. 

have  recognized  as  never  before  that  sound  farm  policy 
generally  requires  the  home  production  of  most  food  sup- 
plies. Those  who  have  endured  with  least  hardship  the 
financial  stress  of  beginning  a  farm  enterprise  are  those 
who  have  had  least  to  buy  and  not  those  who  had  most  to 
sell.  Many  a  farm  has  been  saved  from  the  mortgage  by 
the  yield  of  subsidary  products  for  home  use  and  for  ex- 
change for  essential  home  supplies.  In  this  most  import- 
ant service  the  vegetable  garden  has  done  its  full  share 
and  has  thus  commended  itself  to  the  attention  of  many 
who  formerly  looked  upon  the  growth  of  "garden  sass"  as 
a  sort  of  ignoble  pothering.  The  farm  garden  saves  money 
and  makes  money  if  it  is  given  adequate  thought  and  gen- 
erous effort. 

This  exhortation  can  be  given  forceful  concreteness  by 
the  following  actual  instance  which  occurred  in  one  of  our 
warmer  coast  valleys  : 

"My  garden  consists  of  one  acre  of  good  river  bottom 
land,  and  as  a  matter  of  course  is  under  good  tilth.  Be- 
sides what  we  used  at  home  and  gave  away,  we  sold  to  our 
neighbors  as  follows : 

"Green  onions,  $16;  cauliflower,  $7;  spinach,  $4;  early 
cabbage,  $12 ;  squashes,  $8 ;  green  corn,  $10.50 ;  lettuce, 
$2.25  ;  tomatoes,  $18  ;  beets,  $3 ;  turnips,  $4.  Total,  $84.75. 

"What  can  be  more  profitable?  Any  farmer  can  do  as 
well  if  he  will  only  try.  How  did  we  do  it?  I  will  tell 
you.  Early  in  November  we  planted  top  onions  on  one- 
half  acre,  and  on  the  other  half  we  planted  spinach,  beets, 
lettuce,  turnips  and  carrots.  Our  seed  beds  were  made  in 
December,  and  as  soon  as  the  onions  were  ready  to  pull 
we  replaced  them  with  cabbages,  pulling  our  onions  with 
regard  to  such  planting,  also  making  room  for  a  succes- 
sion of  early  peas  and  snap  beans,  and  finally  cucumbers. 
Of  the  last  three  articles  we  sold  a  good  quantity,  and  the 
product  will  raise  the  total  amount  produced  for  the  sea- 
son to  over  $100." 

This  is  not  an  isolated  instance.    Any  one  can  do  it  who 


GARDEN  IN  MIXED  FARMING.  25 

can  command  the  "essentials  to  success"  previously  con- 
sidered, and  almost  any  one  can  utterly  fail  of  doing  it 
without  them.  A  hint  is  given  of  the  succession  of  crops 
possible  in  the  California  garden.  There  will  be  much  of 
that  hereafter. 

The  social  benefit  of  the  farm  garden  may  enter  the 
realm  of  sentiment  but  it  is  none  the  less  true,  potent  and 
precious.  The  farm  with  a  garden  is  an  inexpressibly  bet- 
ter home  than  without  it.  The  garden  wins  interest;  it 
dispenses  content.  It  awakens  home  pride  and  strength- 
ens home  love.  It  has  actual  educational  value  in  that  it 
directly  imparts  useful  lessons  in  plant  growth  and  re- 
quirements which  are  applicable  to  all  other  farm  opera- 
tions. It  has  lessons  also  to  quicken  the  love  of  the  beau- 
tiful which,  in  turn,  leads  in  all  phases  of  home  improve- 
ment and  lifts  the  standard  of  rural  manhood  and  woman- 
hood. 

Of  Especial  Application  to  California. — All  these  bene- 
fits of  the  installation  of  a  garden  area  on  the  farm  should 
be  especially  striven  for  in  California  because  they  can  be 
realized  here  in  exceptional  measure.  The  well-planned 
California  garden  is  evergreen.  It  admits  of  succession 
and  rotation  within  the  year,  so  that  a  12  month  is  the  pro- 
ducing equivalent  of  twice  or  thrice  its  duration  in  wintry 
climates.  Here  the  garden  does  not  insist  upon  intruding 
its  claims  just  in  the  "rush  of  spring  work"  which  is 
known  in  lands  of  more  marked  seasonal  transitions.  It 
is  well  content  to  be  "ahead  of  the  rush"  the  whole  year 
round,  but  it  must  be  admitted  that  it  stubbornly  rebels 
against  being  behind  it.  Not  only  is  succession  of  tender 
growths  made  possible  by  the  long  frostless  term  but  more 
than  half  of  the  common  garden  vegetables  are  so  hardy 
that  they  maintain  growth  even  through  our  short  frosty 
season  and,  with  irrigation  on  lands  which  need  it,  thrive 
the  whole  year  in  the  open  air.  Rich  is  the  endowment 
which  a  semi-tropical  climate  bestows  upon  the  gardener. 
He  who  does  not  avail  himself  of  it  for  his  own  comfort 
and  profit,  buries  his  talent  in  the  earth. 


26  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES. 

The  Garden  in  Mixed  Farming. — During  the  last  few 
years,  aside  from  the  greater  interest  in  vegetable  grow- 
ing on  the  part  of  the  settlers,  which  has  been  noted,  there 
has  been  a  decided  gain  through  the  efforts  of  newer  resi- 
dents to  make  their  smaller  holdings  self-supplying  and 
income-yielding,  as  well,  by  due  attention  to  vegetable 
growing.  All  through  the  State  the  interest  has  quick- 
ened and  the  accomplishment  has  shown  that  the  old  idea 
that  only  special,  narrow  areas  were  suited  to  garden  lo- 
cations, was  a  misconception.  Instances  are  ample  to  show 
not  only  that  proper  practice  brings  ample  success  almost 
everywhere,  but  such  practice,  coupled  with  intelligent 
planning,  yields  such  variety  of  delicious  esculents  as  only 
a  semi-tropical  climate  allows.  This  is  one  of  the  distinc- 
tive advantages  of  California  and  it  favors  the  develop- 
ment of  small  farms  of  mixed  husbandry  as  well  as  those 
devoted  to  specialties.  Of  course  there  are  limitations 
and  locations  should  be  selected  with  discrimination  for 
either  mixed  or  special  farming.  The  mixed  farm  in  an 
ever  growing  climate  makes  requirements  it  is  true  but  it 
also  bestows  compensations.  As  the  forces  ministering  to 
growth  are  continuously  active,  the  full  use  of  them  be- 
speaks corresponding  activity  on  the  part  of  man.  There 
must  be  a  determination  to  make  almost  every  moment  tell 
in  some  useful  effort.  There  will  be  play  for  the  sharpest 
ingenuity  in  devising  means  and  methods  for  time-saving 
and  ceaseless  study  to  make  the  soil  bear  the  burden  of  the 
table  to  the  fullest  degree.  Small  farming  requires  genius, 
devotion,  and  a  spirit  of  content.  Its  work,  when  one  ac- 
quires or  is  born  with  a  liking  for  it,  is  full  of  cheer  and 
enjoyment.  Its  varied  nature  is  itself  a  charm.  The  trees, 
vines,  plants,  and  domestic  animals  will  rise  almost  to  the 
plane  of  companionship.  Man,  wife  and  children  will  join 
in  the  spirit  of  the  enterprise  they  are  carrying  on  with 
united  heart  and  hand,  and  love  for  home  will  grow  and 
blossom  forth  as  it  seldom  does  in  mansions  or  on  princely 
estates.  Thus  the  modest  calling  has  its  compensations. 


THE  HEN  IN  GARDENING  27 

The  influence  of  such  homes  upon  the  State  is  most  salu- 
tary. Sound  ideas  of  economy  become  prevalent;  honor 
and  honesty  are  qualities  which  win  popular  approval. 
Thus,  the  State  becomes  really  prosperous  and  sound  at 
the  core.  The  crowning  need  of  California  agriculture 
is  to  build  up  enterprises  which  will  stand  alone.  We  have 
been  leaning  too  long  on  the  shoulders  of  bankers  and 
commission  merchants  and  commanders  of  country  stores. 
Without  them  it  is  true  much  that  has  been  done  could 
not  have  been  accomplished,  but  it  is  also  true  that  many 
losing  effort  which  have  been  vainly  put  forth  would  never 
have  been  attempted,  and  those  who  have  made'  these 
efforts  would  be  the  better  for  it.  Who  can  tell  how  many 
would  have  attained  moderate  and  comfortable  successes 
if  they  had  started  without  encumbrance  on  a  modest 
plan  instead  of  wasting  time  with  big  schemes  whose 
whole  returns  have  gone  to  feed  hungry  mortgages  and 
interest  accounts,  until  failure  has  swept  from  them  the 
property  which  they  proudly  hoped  to  possess. 

But  why  intrude  this  homily  ?  The  garden  is  one  of  the 
elements  of  success  in  mixed  farming.  Around  it  other 
elements  naturally  gather.  As  gleaners  and  profitable 
transformers  of  garden  wastes  and  surpluses  into  home 
supplies  and  garden  restoratives,  the  cow,  the  pig,  and  the 
hen  await  outside  the  garden  fence.  Be  sure  to  keep 
them  there,  and  the  garden  will  be  a  liberal  contributor  to 
their  vigor  and  productiveness. 


• 

'.TifJOK    L 

CHAPTER  III. 
f-w.il  •/./     . 

CALIFORNIA    CLIMATE    AS    RELATED    TO    VEGE- 
TABLE   GROWING. 

It  is  not  necessary  to  attempt  an  elaborate  exposition  of 
the  characters  of  the  California  climate.  Such  characteri- 
zation has  been  made  by  different  authorities  from  various 
points  of  view.  It  may  be  claimed  in  a  general  way  that 
our  climates  are  as  kindly  disposed  toward  vegetable 
growth  as  they«are  towards  the  development  of  fruits 
or  the  early  maturity,  thrift  and  comfort  of  animals.  The 
ordinary  exemption  from  ground-freezing  at  any  time  of 
the  year;  the  absence  or  very  rare  and  localized  occur- 
rence of  soil-shifting  winds  or  even  of  winds  to  prostrate 
tall  growths ;  freedom  from  wide  extremes  in  temperature ; 
and  only  occasionally  great  changes  in  atmospheric  hu- 
midity; adequate  heat  for  rapid  growth  with  a  dry,  but 
seldom  desiccating  air,  which  prevents  much  of  the  fun- 
gous growth  of  hot,  humid  climates  and  consequently  in- 
sures a  grand  and  healthy  leaf-action  to  the  plant ;  abun- 
dant sunshine,  but  seldom,  and  then  only  in  few  localities, 
rising  to  leaf  burning;  ample  moisture  either  by  rainfall 
or  irrigation,  or  one  supplementing  the  other — all  these 
characters  and  others  like  them,  constitute  a  climate  of 
exceptional  advantage  to  the  vegetable  grower.  They 
reduce  provisions  for  protection  to  a  minimum ;  a  cloud  of 
smoke  or  a  lot  of  small  fires  for  the  frost ;  a  high  fence  or 
a  line  of  trees  for  the  wind,  a  lath  or  slight  brush  cover- 
ing or  the  neighborly  shadow  of  a  taller  growth  for  the 
most  tender  foliage;  frequent  cultivation  to  retain  mois- 
ture in  the  soil  after  rain  or  irrigation,  and  the  garden  will 
go  through  the  year  with  ample  protection  at  its  weakest 


COAST  VALLEYS.  29 

points.  And  all  these  are  not  needed  in  the  same  locality ; 
in  fact  some  localities  need  none  of  them  except  the  mois- 
ture retention  which  is  universal. 

V 
LOCAL  VARIATIONS  IN  CLIMATE. 

Although  it  is  possible  to  grow  almost  all  vegetables 
everywhere  in  the  State  by  intelligent  selecting  the  proper 
time  of  the  year  for  each,  as  shown  in  other  chapters,  and 
although  few  localities  have  climates  so  uniform  and 
equable  that  by  providing  proper  moisture  conditions 
nearly  all  vegetables  can  be  grown  all  the  year,  it  is  still 
possible  to  define  regions  with  somewhat  distinctive  cli- 
matic characters  bearing  upon  garden  and  field  growth  of 
edible  plants. 

Coast  Valleys — A  considerable  volume  of  vegetable 
products  of  California  is  grown  in  the  coast  valleys.  This 
term  includes  both  well-defined  valleys  of  greater  or  less 
breadth,  and  stretches  of  rather  flat  or  gently  sloping 
land,  open  to  ocean  influences.  It  is  a  region  extending 
the  whole  length  of  the  State  and  lying  between  the  high- 
est elevation  of  the  Coast  Range  and  the  ocean.  In  the 
upper  half  of  the  State  it  is  composed  chiefly  of  well- 
defined  valleys  somewhat  parallel  to  the  coast,  but  pro- 
tected by  low  ranges  which  modify  and  mollify  ocean  in- 
fluences, insuring  higher  temperature  and  more  gentle 
winds  than  are  found  directly  on  the  coast.  In  the  south- 
ern part  of  the  State  the  region  chiefly  consists  of  broad 
areas  quite  open  to  the  ocean  but  needing  no  barriers  from 
it  because,  owing  to  the  trend  of  the  coast,  the  lower  lati- 
tude and  the  greater  distance  south  from  the  source  of 
the  prevailing  air  currents,  the  ocean  influences  are  them- 
selves modified  before  they  reach  the  lands.  In  all  this 
vast  region,  then,  similar  conditions  prevail,  locally  modi- 
fied, however,  enough  to  create  some  marked  differences 
in  degree,  which  have  been  well  utilized  as  the  basis  of 
special  production.  The  difference  in  degree  may  be  speci- 
fied in  this  way :  Temperature  rises  and  rainfall  decreases 


30  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES. 

as  you  proceed  southward.  Take  an  instance  of  specializ- 
ing production :  Humboldt,  Mendocino  and  Sonoma  coun- 
ties, coast  side,  low  temperature  and  large  rainfall,  known 
from  the  earliest  times  as  a  great  potato  country;  San 
Luis  Obispo,  Santa  Barbara  and  Ventura  counties,  coast 
side,  higher  temperatures  and  light  rainfall,  producing 
a  considerable  part  of  all  the  beans  grown  in  the  State. 
And  yet  though  these  differences  thus  notably  localize 
production,  the  whole  coast  region  north  and  south  has 
this  in  common ;  it  has  a  more  equable  and  lower  tempera- 
ture and  a  more  generous  rainfall  than  the  interior  valley 
at  its  own  latitude ;  it  also  has  lighter  frosts,  growing 
lighter  still  toward  the  south  until  it  incloses  regions  here 
and  there  which  favoring  topography  makes  practically 
frostless.  Such  situations  favor  all-the-year  growth  of  the 
tenderest  vegetables,  and  perennial  beans  and  tomato 
trees  are  possible. 

Interior  Lowlands. — A  region  which  has  recently  greatly 
advanced  in  importance  in  vegetable  production  comprises 
the  lower  lands  of  the  interior  valleys.  They  lie  along 
the  two  great  rivers  of  the  northern  and  central  parts  of 
California — the  Sacramento  and  San  Joaquin,  and  their 
tributaries.  These  rivers  flow  from  nearly  two  hundred 
miles,  north  and  south  of  their  confluence,  where  they 
mingle  their  waters  through  numerous  sloughs  until  the 
joint  streams  pour  through  a  gap  in  the  coast  range  into 
San  Francisco  bay.  The  same  gap  which  lets  out  the 
waters  lets  in  the  ocean  current  of  moisture-laden  wind 
and  moderates  the  heat  of  the  entire  interior  valley,  but 
naturally  dispenses  most  moisture  and  coolness  over  the 
lowlands  which  lie  just  in  its  course  as  it  rushes  north- 
ward and  southward  to  displace  the  air  which  is  rarified 
by  the  sun  heat  on  the  interior  plains  of  the  great  valley. 
These  interior  lowlands  along  the  lower  stretches  of  the 
rivers  have  then  an  interior  climate  modified  by  the  in- 
trusion from  the  coast,  but  this  only  acts  in  full  measure 
during  June,  July  and  August.  It  serves,  therefore,  as  a 


RIVER  LAND  VEGETABLES.  31 

moderator  of  heat  and  drought  during  that  period  and 
supplements  the  supply  of  aqueous  vapor  which  rises  by 
evaporation  from  the  immense  acreage  of  tule  swamps 
and  shallow  lakes  which  surround  the  tillable  lands  of 
the  region.  Climatic  conditions  in  this  large  interior  area 
favor  the  growth  of  vegetables  and  its  producing  capa- 
city is  beyond  any  present  commercial  use  which  can  be 
made  of  it.  But  though  it  has  a  temporary  coast  modi- 
fication, as  has  been  stated  it  falls  back  into  interior  habits 
when  restraint  is  removed.  It  has  intervals  of  hot,  dry 
winds  which  exclude  the  coast  winds  from  access  to  the 
valley  and  then  intense  dry  heat  calls  for  ample  water 
supply,  which,  fortunately,  however,  is  easily  applied, 
because  at  such  season  the  rivers  and  sloughs  are  running 
full  and  if  seepage  is  not  enough,  siphons  or  flood-gates 
admit  water  from  the  high-running  rivers  or  pumps  yield 
great  volumes  at  little  cost.  But  the  interior  lowlands 
have  another  more  grievous  trait.  As  they  lie  low  they 
are  the  scenes  of  the  latest  spring  and  earliest  autumn 
frosts  and  their  season  for  tender  vegetables  is  shorter 
than  that  of  the  coast,  though  with  their  higher  heat  and 
copious  moisture  their  mid-season  product  of  these  ten- 
der crops  may  out-volume  a  slower,  longer  season  on  the 
coast.  But  the  earliest  and  the  latest  tender  vegetables 
do  not  come  from  the  interior  lowlands. 

There  are  interior  lowlands  of  wonderful  producing 
capacity  at  considerable  distances  from  the  confluence  of 
the  two  rivers  just  mentioned.  For  about  three  hundred 
miles  the  river  lands  extend  both  northward  and  south- 
ward, offering  an  area  of  moist  or  easily-irrigated  land  of 
such  fertility  and  extent  that  it  suggests  its  own  ability 
to  produce  vegetables  for  the  whole  country.  At  present 
hardly  an  appreciable  fraction  of  one  per  cent  of  it  is 
employed  in  production  for  which  it  is  best  fitted.  In  the 
future  its  lower  levels  will  be  the  Holland  and  its  upper 
extensions  the  Nile  valley  of  California.  The  farther  these 
lowlands  lie  from  the  mouths  of  the  rivers  the  less  they  re- 


32  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES. 

ceive  of  coast  influences.  This  gives  the  distant  lowlands 
a  higher  temperature  and  greater  forcing  power  upon 
vegetation.  The  nights  are  warm  as  well  as  the  days. 
Vegetables  of  prodigious  size  and  acre-crops  which  tax 
credulity,  are  the  result  of  the  favoring  conditions.  But 
these  lands  are  low  and  danger  of  frost  makes  it  necessary 
to  select  crops  for  hardiness  during  a  part  of  the  year. 

Interior  Plains  and  Foothills. — Above  and  away  from  the 
lowlands  of  the  rivers  and  their  deltas  the  interior  plains 
stretch  far  as  the  eye  can  reach,  and  rise,  both  on  the  east 
and  west,  into  the  foothills  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  and  the 
coast  ranges.  In  southern  California  somewhat  similar 
regions  occur  as  the  lands  rise  from  the  coast  flats  to  the 
mesas  and  foothills  of  the  high,  incurved  mountain  range 
which  encloses  the  splendid  coast  region  of  southern  Cali- 
fornia. The  great  interior  plains  of  southern  California 
irrigated  from  the  Colorado  river  and  adjacent  valleys 
irrigated  from  wells  constitute  a  vast  vegetable  growing 
district  which  has  recently  attained  notable  development. 
There  are  similar  climatic  conditions  prevailing  through 
these  vast  interior  regions  both  north  and  south — except 
that  the  extreme  south  has  by  its  latitude  and  its  escape 
from  ocean  influence,  a  frost  freedom  and  spring  time 
heat  which  enable  it  to  produce  the  earliest  vegetables  in 
the  State.  In  the  interior  regions  the  rainfall  is  light  as 
compared  with  the  coast  until  the  mountain  climate  is 
encountered  at  varying  elevations,  when  it  becomes  even 
greater  than  on  the  coast.  The  mean  temperature  is 
higher  and,  except  in  certain  localities,  the  frosts  cover 
a  shorter  period  and  are  less  severe.  Winter  growth  of 
vegetables  is  widely  feasible  and  plants  of  less  hardi- 
hood than  those  of  the  lowlands  are  usually  safe.  But 
the  rains  cease  earlier  in  the  spring  and  heat  and  drought 
make  irrigation  essential  long  before  it  is  required  nearer 
the  coast.  For  summer  growth  of  vegetables,  except  on 
small  areas  moistened  by  underflow  from  mountain  springs 
or  valley  cienegas,  irrigation  must  be  provided.  These 


FOOTHILLS  AND  MOUNTAINS.  33 

are  the  regions  which  were  formerly  most  apt  to  be  con- 
demned as  unfit  for  vegetable  growing,  and  it  is  upon  such 
lands  that  most  failures  and  disappointments  occur.  It  is 
true  that  local  climatic  conditions  here  need  most  radical 
modification  by  art  of  man,  but  it  is  here  also  that  prompt 
and  timely  work  and  adequate  irrigation,  wind  protection 
and  partial  shade  win  their  greatest  victories.  There  is 
really  no  reason  why  the  energetic,  enterprising  man 
should  hesitate  for  a  moment  about  undertaking  prepara- 
tion for  his  home  supply  of  vegetables.  Commercial  un- 
dertakings in  vegetable  growing  may  have  to  be  confined 
to  fewer  plants  grown  just  at  the  right  season  and  with 
special  methods,  but  even  a  small  water  supply  with  ample 
will  and  work  will  give  a  full  variety  for  the  family  table. 

At  certain  elevations  on  the  mesas  and  foothills  of  the 
Sierra  Nevada  and  Coast  ranges,  sheltered  by  local  topog- 
rophy,  there  are  practically  frostless  regions  with  ample 
winter  rains  where  winter  growth  is  so  fostered  that  the 
earliest  vegetables  as  well  as  the  earliest  fruits  are  pro- 
duced. Some  tender  vegetables  may  be  ready  for  the 
table  on  the  higher  location  before  it  is  safe  to  plant  the 
seed  on  the  lower  level.  And  the  two  situations  may  be 
in  full  sight  of  each  other.  It  is  a  fact  that  in  small  val- 
leys of  the  foothills  late  and  early  frosts,  sharp  and  de- 
structive, may  be  more  prevalent  than  on  the  lowlands 
of  the  broad  valley  below,  while  on  the  slopes  above 
them  tender  plants  may  be  safe. 

Mountain  Valleys. — Among  the  mountain  peaks  and 
ridges  from  three  thousand  feet  upward  are  slopes  and 
valleys  which  are  very  productive  of  vegetables.  As  ele- 
vation decreases,  wintry  features  become  intensified  and 
range  of  winter  growth  less  and  less  until  in  the  true 
"mountain  valleys,"  which  lie  among  the  summits  of  the 
Sierra  Nevada,  the  winter  is  a  closed  season  of  snow  and 
ice  and  the  garden  becomes  a  summer  affair  as  in  the 
Eastern  States.  Growth,  however,  during  the  open  sea 
son  is  very  rapid  and  satisfactory,  moisture  is  abundant 


34  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES. 

and  irrigation  facilities  ample  in  the  abundant  supplies 
of  snow  waters  from  above,  which  need  however  to  be 
moderated  in  temperature  before  distribution.  In  this 
region  gardening  seasons  and  practices  are  more  compar- 
able with  eastern  policies  and  methods  and  are  not  charac- 
teristically Californian  as  the  term  is  usually  understood. 

GENERAL  CHARACTERS  OF  CALIFORNIA  CLIMATE. 

The  proper  conclusion  from  the  foregoing  discussion 
is  that  each  California  locality  must  be  separately  studied 
to  determine  its  climatic  adaptations  for  vegetable  grow- 
ing and  its  season  for  the  best  discharge  of  the  various 
gardening  duties.  There  are,  however,  some  generaliza- 
tions concerning  leading  climatic  features  as  related  to 
vegetable  growing  which  may  be  of  assistance  to  distant 
readers. 

Relative  Occurrences  of  Cloudiness  and  Sunshine  in  Cal- 
ifornia Regions. — Due  proportion  of  sunlight,  warmth  and 
moisture  is  necessary  to  produce  quick  and  healthy  vege- 
tation. Cloudiness  is  also  an  important  element,  since  the 
presence  of  clouds  screens  the  earth  and  diminishes  the 
heat  received  by  vegetation  from  the  direct  rays  of  the 
sun.  So  also,  acting  as  a  screen,  it  prevents  in  a  measure 
the  radiation  of  heat  from  the  earth  into  space,  and  this 
materially  tends  to  modify  and  reduce  the  daily  range 
of  temperature,  so  that  growing  vegetation  is  not  subject 
to  as  great  cold  as  would  otherwise  obtain  during  the 
night,  nor  on  the  other  hand,  does  it  receive  the  full 
amount  of  solar  heat  by  day. 

It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  weather  condi- 
tions most  favorable  for  vegetable  growing  are  in  some 
respects  different  from  those  which  minister  to  the  per- 
gection  of  fruits.  The  fruit  tree,  with  its  roots  deep 
in  a  moist  soil,  welcomes  high  heat  to  mature  its  fruit. 
The  perfection  of  the  esculent  falls  far  short  of  the. ma- 
turity of  the  plant  and  lies  mainly  in  the  measure  and 
tenderness  of  foliage,  stem,  immature  fruit  or  fleshy  root. 


RAINFALL  AND  FROST.  35 

These  are  usually  best  attained  at  a  degree  of  heat  less 
than  required  for  fruit  ripening.  Again  edible  plants  as 
compared  with  trees  are  shallow-rooting  and  suffer  in  a 
very  hot  surface  soil  which  a  tree  escapes  by  penetration 
of  the  subsoil.  The  growth  of  winter  vegetables  is  ad- 
vanced by  abundant  sunshine  during  the  rainy  season; 
the  growth  of  summer  vegetables  is  promoted  by  cloud- 
screen  from  excessive  sun  heat,  and  it  is  clearly  refreshed 
by  summer  fog.  Herein,  in  part  at  least,  lies  the  explana- 
tion why  the  earliest  vegetables  come  from  interior  re- 
gions and  the  main  crop  of  midseason  and  late  vegetables 
is  to  be  sought  in  regions  whose  climate  is  modified  by 
cool  coast  winds,  which  sometimes  carry  fogs  and  always 
temper  sun  action  by  their  content  of  insensible  aqueous 
vapor.  Some  plants  are  especially  responsive  to  this  ac- 
tion of  coast  breezes.  Lima  beans  on  the  Ventura  coast 
are  sometimes  rescued  from  failure  through  deficient  rain- 
fall, by  days  of  cool,  misty  breezes  from  the  adjacent 
ocean.  The  same  is  true  in  varying  degrees  of  all  vege- 
tation and  the  fact  is  often  of  very  great  economic  im- 
portance to  California.  v 

Distribution  of  Rainfall. — The  local  rainfall  throughout 
the  State  has  of  course  about  the  same  relation  to  local 
gardening  as  it  has  to  other  farm  work,  but  it  seems 
hardly  necessary  to  discuss  it  in  this  place,  because  it  is 
possible  now  to  secure  the  data  from  different  sources. 
Local  observers  almost  everywhere  can  furnish  the  facts. 
It  is,  however,  pertinent  to  present  a  general  compilation 
which  fixes  approximately  the  date  at  which  effective 
rains  may  be  expected  in  each  main  division  of  the  State 
and  thus  impart  a  somewhat  definite  notion  of  when  the 
natural  season  of  growth  will  begin.  All  should  be  in 
readiness  beforehand  to  seize  upon  this  opportunity  for 
soil  working,  if  one  is  to  proceed  without  irrigation,  and 
for  the  planting  of  seeds  of  hardy  vegetables  which  will 
withstand  the  local  winter  temperature  and  give  the 
earliest  readiness  for  use  under  the  circumstances. 


36  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES. 

The  Occurrence  of  Frosts  in  California. — The  occurrence 
of  frost  in  California  is,  from  one  point  of  view,  a  purely 
local  question.  As  has  already  been  stated,  the  frosty  and 
the  frostless  places  are  often  in  sight  of  each  other  on 
the  same  landscape  from  the  same  point  of  view.  It  can 
be  even  more  closely  drawn  than  that.  It  is  sometimes 
quite  as  plainly  to  be  seen  as  the  high-water  line  of  a 
river  flood  on  a  sloping  meadow.  This  occurs  of  course  in 
what  are  termed  the  thermal  belts  and  is  determined  by 
elevation,  air  currents,  outflow  levels  and  several  other 
incidents  of  local  topography.  There  are  often  wide  va- 
riations in  these  lines  from  year  to  year  and  yet  there  is 
steadfastness  enough  about  the  phenomena  to  enable  resi- 
dents to  agree  among  themselves  as  to  what  localities  are 
' '  in  the  frost ' '  and  what  are  out  of  it.  Upon  this  decision 
depends  the  business  risk  in  planting  out  beans,  peppers, 
tomatoes,  etc.,  for  winter  growth,  and  it  is  upon  such  fields 
that  the  frost,  not  always  content  with  the  local  definition 
of  its  limits,  draws  the  dead  line  which  the  morning  sun 
brings  into  such  fateful  prominence.  Of  course  the  grower 
is  not  necessarily  content  to  accept  such  natural  bounda- 
ries of  the  thermal  belt.  He  can  materially  change  it  all 
by  frost-fighting,  but  the  discussion  of  that  matter  be- 
longs to  another  chapter. 

It  is  important  to  know  as  nearly  as  possible  the  be- 
ginning and  end  of  the  frost  free  period  in  each  locality, 
and  data  to  assist  in  determining  this  fact  are  given  in 
the  chapter  on  The  Planting  Season. 


CHAPTER  IV. 
VEGETABLE    SOILS    OF    CALIFORNIA. 

Soils  which  favor  the  most  satisfactory  growth  of  vege- 
tables are  those  which  are  most  easily  maintained  in  a  con- 
dition of  tilth  to  promote  seed  germination  and  rapid  es- 
tablishment of  the  seedling  in  sure-growing  contact  with 
the  soil-substance;  soils  which  facilitate  deep-root  pene- 
tration by  the  advancing  plant  so  that  moisture  and  plant 
food  shall  be  rapidly  reached,  and  which  have  sufficient 
retentive  power  and  capillarity  to  maintain  adequate  mois- 
ture within  reach  of  the  roots  and  such  amount  of  plant 
food  that  the  plant  may  attain  the  greatest  growth  in  the 
least  time.  Soils  with  these  characters  have  also  the 
most  valuable  incidental  qualities  of  warmth,  to  foster 
vegetative  processes;  porosity  to  facilitate  the  escape  of 
surplus  water  and  the  entrance  of  the  air  with  its  con- 
stituents which  promote  root  action  and  modification  of 
the  soil  substance  and  absorptive  power  to  readily  receive 
and  deeply  distribute  rainfall  or  irrigation.  These  are 
high  requirements,  for  it  is  an  ideal  soil  which  possesses 
them  all. 

Ideal  Soils  Not  Essential. — Fortunately  gardening  art  is 
amply  able  to  supply  natural  deficiencies  in  nearly  all 
respects  and,  if  he  is  working  for  high-priced  products  on 
a  comparatively  small  area,  the  vegetable  grower  can  of- 
ten profitably  make  considerable  expenditure  for  soil  im- 
provement. Market  gardeners  need  no  exhortation  in  this 
line,  but  the  home  gardener  should  be  urged  not  to  de- 
spair because  of  any  refractory  character  in  the  soil  he 
is  obliged  to  utilize.  If  he  study  the  subject  by  the  aid 
of  most  excellent  treatises  recently  written  on  the  soil  and 


38  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES. 

its  amelioration  he  can  proceed  rationally  and  accom- 
plish marvels  with  Will,  Work  and  Water  upon  almost 
any  soil,  from  a  brick  yard  to  a  desert.  City  people  have 
grown  their  table  supplies  on  housetops;  no  ruralist  can 
find  a  less  productive  subsoil. 

Light  Rather  Than  Heavy  Soils. — The  characters  already 
cited  point  clearly  to  what  is  commonly  designated  as  a 
Bather  light  soil  as  best  for  vegetable  growing.  The  ex- 
creme  variations  in  soils  are  popularly  known  as  heavy 
adobe  and  light  sandy  soils.  Neither  are  usually  counted 
suitable  for  garden  purposes  without  treatment  to  over- 
come their  defects  and  yet  as  the  terms  are  used  in  some 
California  regions,  there  are  very  good  gardens  on  both 
of  them.  The  explanation  is  that  in  such  localities  one  has 
less  sand  and  one  less  clay  than  the  other.  Both  are 
really  loams  or  mixtures  of  sand  and  clay:  one  a  clayey 
loam,  the  other  a  loamy  sand.  Aside  from  this  misappre- 
hension of  terms  we  have  of  course  clays  (locally  called 
"adobe")  which  are  true  enough  to  the  type  to  bring 
despair  to  the  most  patient  gardener  and  we  have  washes 
of  pure  sand  on  which  a  shallow-rooting  plant  could  hardly 
live  with  a  stream  of  water  running  beside  it.  But  our 
shifting  sands  of  the  interior  plains  and  our  so-called 
deserts  are  sandy  loams  which  yield  profusely  when  prop- 
erly irrigated.  For  the  improvement  of  defective  soils  for 
the  farm-garden,  suggestions  will  be  given  later. 

Soils  Naturally  Excellent. — For  field  growth  of  vegeta- 
bles in  California  the  grower  is  usually  content  to  proceed 
upon  the  natural  texture  and  fertility  of  his  soil.  The 
crop  is  chosen  to  suit  the  local  soil  and  climate,  conse- 
quently we  have  districts  becoming  famous  for  special 
vegetable  products  as  demand  for  them  in  considerable 
quantities  is  demonstrated.  In  such  districts  the  soils 
are  rather  light  and  yet  ample  in  richness  to  endure  for 
some  time  the  drain  of  continuous  cropping  in  the  same 
line.  We  have  areas  of  such  soils  considerably  in  excess 
of  their  present  profitable  use.  They  constitute  one  of  our 


40  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES. 

undeveloped  resources  and  are  a  surety  of  future  advance- 
ment. 

For  the  very  gratifying  amount  of  accurate  knowledge  of 
California  soils  which  is  now  available  a  debt  of  honor 
is  due  to  Dr.  E.  W.  Hilgard,  formerly  Professor  of  Agri- 
culture and  Director  of  the  Experiment  Stations  of  the 
University  of  California,  who  has  given  a  lifetime  to  ad- 
vanced investigations  in  soil  physics  and  chemistry.  It 
is  from  his  publications1  that  we  shall  condense  some  ac- 
count of  the  specific  character  of  those  soils  which  are 
most  nearly  related  to  local  production  of  vegetables,  leav- 
ing out  of  account  the  heavy  adobe,  which  is  little  used 
for  these  crops  except  by  gardeners  who  radically  change 
its  physical  character. 

Prevailing  Character  of  California  Soils. — In  his  inter- 
esting contrast  of  the  soils  of  arid  and  humid  regions,  Dr. 
Hilgard  makes  some  generalizations,  which  we  collate  to 
serve  our  present  purpose. 

The  character  of  the  soils  of  the  arid  regions  is  predomi- 
nantly sandy  or  silty,  with  but  a  small  portion  of  clay  un- 
less derived  directly  or  indirectly  from  pre-existing  for- 
mations of  clay  or  clay  shales. 

The  idea  of  inherent  fertility  has  been  associated  so 
generally  with  soils  of  a  more  or  less  clayey  character, 
that  the  newcomer  will  frequently  be  suspicious  of  the 
productiveness  and  desirability  of  the  sandy  or  silty  soils 
of  the  arid  region  that  experience  has  shown  to  be  of  the 
highest  type  in  both  respects. 

Another  point  of  great  importance  .is  that  the  differ- 
ence between  soil  and  subsoil,  which  is  so  striking  and 
important  in  regions  of  abundant  rainfall,  is  largely  ob- 
literated in  arid  climates.  Very  commonly  hardly  a  per- 
ceptible change  of  tint  or  texture  is  found  for  depths  of 


^'Soils:  Their  Formation,  Properties,  Composition  and  Relations 
to  Climate  and  Plant  Growth";  also  "Agriculture  for  Schools  of 
the  Pacific  Slope,"  by  Hilgard  and  Osterhout.  These  works  can 
be  furnished  by  the  PACIFIC  RURAL  PRESS  of  San  Francisco.- 


CALIFORNIA  SOILS  RICH.  41 

several  feet  and  material  from  such  depths,  when  thrown 
on  the  surface,  is  nearly  or  quite  as  fertile  as  the  original 
surface  soil.  In  the  case  of  a  cellar  dug  near  Nevada 
City,  the  red  soil  mass  excavated  from  a  depth  of  seven 
to  ten  feet  was  spread  over  part  of  a  vegetable  garden  near 
by  and  tomatoes,,  beans  and  watermelons  were  planted  on 
it.  The  growth  was  even  better  than  on  the  parts  of  the 
old  surface  not  covered,  which  had  apparently  become 
somewhat  exhausted  by  years  of  use. 

Examination  has  shown  that  the  percentage  of  humus 
or  vegetable  mold  is  less  in  the  soils  of  the  arid  region, 
but  their  humus  contains  more  nitrogen.  Thus,  prob- 
ably, on  the  average  not  only  is  the  aggregate  supply 
of  nitrogen  in  the  soils  of  the  arid  region  approximately 
equal  to  that  of  humid  soils,  but  its  absorption  by  plants 
is  exceptionally  favored  by  climatic  conditions. 

As  to  the  minerals  which  constitute  fertility,  the  soils 
of  the  arid  region  contain  nearly  fifteen  times  as  much 
lime,  five  times  as  much  magnesia,  three  times  as  much 
potash  and  about  the  same  amount  of  phosphoric  acid  as 
the  soils  of  the  humid  regions. 

Significance  of  These  facts. — These  leading  characteris- 
tics of  California's  horticultural  soils  are  of  the  highest 
significance  to  the  vegetable  grower  because  they  show 
that  California  is  rich  in  soils  of  ideal  excellence  for  his 
purposes.  They  are  light  soils  and  therefore  easy  of  cul- 
tivation and  not  disposed  to  bake  on  drying;  they  are 
deep,  consequently  well  drained  and  yet  absorptive  and 
retentive  enough :  they  are  exceptionally  rich,  consequently 
extremely  productive  and  durable  and  they  can  often  be 
given  a  new  fertile  surface  by  deep  turning  from  the' fer- 
tility of  the  greater  depths.  This  was  the  natural  en- 
dowment which  enabled  the  pioneer  vegetable  growers  to 
disturb  the  horticulaural  peace  of  the  world  in  1849-50. 
It  remains  to  foster  the  achievements  of  later  years  and  it 
will  endure  definitely  into  the  future. 

The  distribution   of  these  desirable  soils  gives  all  re- 


42  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES. 

gions  a  share  in  them.  Either  as  residual  loams  resulting 
from  the  decomposition  of  adjacent  rocks,  or  as  transported 
loams  which  have  been  carried  greater  or  less  distances 
by  wind,  glacial  action  or  other  moving  force,  or  as  allu- 
vial or  sediment  soils,  deposited  by  action  of  flowing 
streams,  every  California  county  has  its  vegetable  soils  in 
ample  measure.  Such  is  the  diversity  of  soils  within 
narrow  areas  in  California  that  it  may  not  take  a  very 
large  farm  to  inclose  several  diverse  types,  and  it  is  the 
first  duty  of  the  settler  to  learn  their  special  characters 
and  adaptations  and  plan  his  production  accordingly. 

Alluvial  or  Sediment  Soils. — Though  there  is  marked 
difference  in  the  origin  of  our  soils  which  are  suitable  for 
vegetable  growing,  when  proper  moisture  conditions  are 
arranged,  it  is  naturally  the  alluvial  or  sediment  soils 
which  have  hitherto  been  chiefly  used.  They  have  been 
deposited  by  recent  or  ancient  water  courses  and  have 
formelrly  served  as  river  banks  or  river  and  lake  bottoms. 
They  have  beneath  them,  generally  quite  far  below,  the 
prevailing  soil  of  the  adjacent  country.  They  consist  of 
fine  alluvium  with  seldom  any  admixture  of  coarse  mate- 
rials. They  are  usually  very  deep  and  well  drained.  They 
occur  sometimes  at  a  considerably  higher  level  than  ex- 
isting streams  and  are  sometimes  designated  as  ''next  to 
river  bottom, ' '  while  the  lower  levels  constitute  the  ' '  river 
bottom."  In  some  small  valleys  they  have  spread  deeply 
all  over  the  original  soil,  having  been  washed  in  such  quan- 
tities from  adjacent  hills,  and  in  larger  valleys  have 
spread  for  considerable  distances  out  upon  the  plain. 
These  are  primarily  the  fruit  lands,  but  they  are  also 
largely  used  for  such  vegetables  as  thrive  upon  lighter  and 
drier  soils.  Below  are  the  present  river  bottoms,  usually 
dark,  rich  and  moist  and  not  subject  to  baking  or  crack- 
ing, which  are,  par  excellence,  vegetable  lands. 

Peat  Lands. — Another  class  of  alluvial  soils  is  known  as 
peat  soils,  which  consist  of  mixtures  in  various  propor- 
tions of  silt  and  sediment  with  the  debris  of  centuries' 


IMPROVING  HEAVY  SOILS.  43 

growth  of  swamp  plants  which  the  streams  have  currently 
overflowed  in  flood  times  or  over  which  they  have  risen 
daily  as  the  tide  wall  has  held  back  their  waters.  This 
organic  matter  from  the  aquatic  plants  is  in  various 
stages  of  decomposition,  but  in  the  best  of  the  lands  has 
been  reduced  to  fineness  by  cultivation  after  the  floods 
and  tides  have  been  excluded  by  levees,  or  by  natural 
barriers  interposed  by  stream  or  wave  action,  or  by  re- 
cession of  lake  waters  according  as  the  situation  is  on  the 
coast  or  distant  interior.  This  light  but  very  deep  and 
rich  soil  especially  suits  some  plants  and  is  the  basis 
of  some  of  our  export  vegetable  business,  as  for  instance, 
celery  growing.  Such  soils  are  of  course  used  locally  for 
all  esculent  plants  which  thrive  upon  them  and  which 
the  market  favors.  Such  lands  are  in  vast  area  in  many 
parts  of  the  State,  from  near  the  ocean  to  the  margins 
of  interior  rivers  and  lakes  and  waters  of  interior  plateaux 
as  well.  In  the  heat  of  the  interior  valley  they  dry 
out  very  rapidly  when  seepage  or  overflow  from  streams 
and  sloughs  is  cut  off  by  levees.  They  are  non-retentive, 
owing  to  the  coarseness  of  their  structure,  but  irrigation  is 
easily  accomplished,  as  will  be  noted  in  the  proper  con- 
nection. 

IMPROVEMENT    OF    SOIL    TEXTURE    FOR 
GARDENING. 

Aside  from  such  treatment  of  the  soil  as  is  designed  to 
increase  its  fertility,  which  will  be  considered  in  the 
chapter  on  fertilizing,  it  seems  fitting  in  this  connection 
to  suggest  measures  by  which  the  texture  of  the  soil  may 
be  improved  when  necessary.  This  is  important  in  the 
farm  garden  because  there  may  not  be  anything  approach- 
ing an  ideal  garden  soil  inside  the  line  fences.  But  this 
fact  should  not  discourage  the  home  gardener,  as  has 
already  been  intimated. 

If  one  observes  the  operations  of  market  gardeners  or 
reads  any  treatise  on  gardening  written  for  the  older 


44  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES. 

countries,  he  is  apt  to  conclude  that  the  Creator  has  done 
little  for  the  modern  garden  except  to  furnish  a  place 
to  put  it,  because  the  chief  art  of  gardening  seems  to  con- 
sist in  using  as  little  of  the  natural  soil  as  possible.  This 
state  of  affairs  has  not  arisen  in  California  yet,  for  the 
reasons  shown  in  the  descriptions  of  our  garden  soils,  and 
yet  we  do  not  mean  to  suggest  that  the  farm  gardener 
should  in  all  cases  expect  to  reach  satisfactory  results 
without  due  effort  for  soil  improvement  on  the  small  area 
which  he  expects  to  yield  so  much. 

Improvement  of  Adobe  Soils. — Our  adobes,  especially 
those  of  the  darker  hues,  are  rich  and  durable.  In  com- 
mon with  heavy  clay  soils  everywhere,  they  are  retentive 
of  moisture.  In  our  arid  summers,  however,  they  lose 
their  moisture  speedily  by  evaporation,  if  untilled,  and 
dry  out  to  a  greater  depth  than  lighter  soils.  They  are 
refractory  under  tillage  and  unless  caught  at  just  the 
right  moment  they  are  either  wax  or  rock  under  the  plow, 
and  the  cultivator  will  either  stick  fast  or  ride  over  the 
surface.  And  yet  if  one  has  nothing  but  adobe  he  is  not 
as  badly  off  as  he  might  be,  because  adobe  is  easily  suscep- 
tible of  improvement.  The  points  to  attain  are  several, 
but  they  are  inter-related  and  effort  for  one  measurably 
helps  toward  all. 

The  free  use  of  air-slaked  lime  applied  about  the  time 
of  the  first  rains  is  the  first  and  simplest  effort  toward 
breaking  up  the  tenacity  of  the  soil.  This  should  be  done 
no  matter  what  greater  efforts  are  to  be  undertaken  later. 

Deep  and  thorough  tillage,  taking  the  soil  at  just  that 
condition  of  moisture  when  it  works  well  with  plow  and 
harrow,  will  be  found  to  progressively  improve  its  tilla- 
bility  by  mere  action  of  air  and  implements.  If  this  is 
all  that  can  be  undertaken  at  first,  do  this  thoroughly  and 
put  in  the  cultivator  after  each  heavy  rain  as  soon  as  the 
proper  condition  of  soil  arrives,  so  as  to  prevent  baking 
of  the  surface.  For  winter  growth  of  vegetables  in  re- 


IMPROVING  HEAVY  SOILS.  45 

gions  of  ample  rainfall,  use  the  ridge  system,  which  will  be 
described  in  a  subsequent  chapter. 

But  liming  and  persistent  tillage  are  only  temporizing 
with  adobe  and  do  not  accomplish  permanent  reform. 
The  first  rational  step  is  to  resort  to  adequate  drainage. 
Tile  drains  two  and  a  half  or  three  feet  deep  and  twenty 
feet  apart  will  do  for  garden  plants.  This  leaves  a  clear 
surface  for  working  over,  but,  if  the  expense  of  tiling  is 
not  desired,  open  ditches  will  answer,  but  they  restrict 
cultivation  to  one  direction,  waste  land,  and  are  expen- 
sive in  hand  work  in  killing  weeds  in  the  ditches.  Open 
ditches  are,  however,  better  than  no  ditches  at  all.  The 
effect  of  drainage  is  to  promote  friability,  to  render  the 
soil  tillable  earlier  and  oftener,  by  the  quick  removal  of 
surplus  water,  and  to  promote  seed  germination  and  plant 
growth. 

The  aeration  of  adobe  by  drainage  and  tillage  accom- 
plishes a  considerable  improvement  but  still  more  radi- 
cal reform  measures  are  desirable.  The  soil  particles  are 
naturally  too  small.  They  must  be  separated  by  interposi- 
tion of  coarser  grains.  Plow  into  the  soil  as  much  coarse 
material  as  possible. 

Farm-yard  manure,  straw,  sand,  old  plaster,  coal 
ashes,  sawdust,  almost  anything  coarse  or  gritty  which 
will  break  up  the  close  adherence  of  the  fine  clay  par- 
ticles, release  the  surplus  water  and  let  in  the  air,  will 
produce  a  marked  effect  in  reducing  the  hateful 
baking  and  cracking,  root-tearing  and  moisture-losing  be- 
havior of  the  adobe.  Scrape  the  corrals,  rake  up  the  leaves 
and  fine  litter  of  all  kinds,  make  the  adobe  garden  patch 
the  graveyard  for  all  the  rubbish  which  is  susceptible  of 
decay.  The  farm  will  be  neater  and  the  garden  will  pay 
the  expense  in  its  easier  working  and  better  growth.  Do 
this  every  year  before  the  rains  come,  and  you  will  rejoice 
that  you  had  an  adobe  foundation  for  the  farm  garden. 

The  Improvement  of  Light,  Sindy  Soils. — This  effort  is 
in  some  cases  more  difficult  than  conquering  adobe.  It  all 


46  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES. 

depends  upon  the  coarseness  of  the  sand  and  the  subsoil 
upon  which  it  rests.  If  soil  and  subsoil  are  coarse  sand 
or  gravel  to  a  considerable  depth,  shallow  rooting  plants 
will  fail  unless  they  can  finish  their  growth  during  the 
rainy  season.  Summer  growth  is  impossible  because  water 
will  flow  through  their  sieve-like  structure  and  carry 
away  plant  food  with  it.  With  moisture  leaching  away 
below  and  flying  away  above,  and  with  intense  sun  heat 
burning  the  foliage  by  direct  contact  and  reflection,  such 
wash  soils  are  indescribably  worse  than  adobe. 

But  sandy  soils  which  are  imposed  upon  clay  or  hard- 
pan,  providing  the  underlying  stratum  is  not  alkaline, 
furnish  very  promising  garden  materials,  even  though 
the  layer  be  too  shallow  for  the  growth  of  trees.  Many 
fruit  growers  are  struggling  to  maintain  trees  on  such 
spots  in  their  orchards  when  they  should  forsake  the  ef- 
wort  and  by  adequate  use  of  water  and  manure  turn  such 
spots  into  family  gardens.  The  holding  of  water  near 
the  surface,  which  is  fatal  to  tree  roots,  is  the  opportunity 
for  the  growth  of  most  vegetables.  Depth  of  soil  which 
is  so  strongly  insisted  upon  in  treatises  on  gardening,  con- 
stitutes a  storehouse  of  moisture  and  plant  food,  but  it 
has  been  abundantly  demonstrated  the  world  over  that 
depth  is  not  essential  provided  the  plant  is  otherwise  fed 
and  watered.  California  gardens  proceeding  upon  rain- 
fall alone,  need  a  deep,  retentive  soil;  the  irrigated  gar- 
den may  thrive  upon  a  soil  too  coarse  to  be  retentive  pro- 
viding it  has  a  tight  bottom  to  hold  moisture  within  reach 
of  shallow  rooting  plants.  Therefore  reclaim  such  sand 
by  providing  a  home  water  supply,  if  not  in  an  irrigated 
region,  and  use  plenty  of  well-composted  and  decayed  ma- 
nure, which  will  not  only  feed  the  plants  but  will  also 
reform  its  texture  and  transform  the  coarse  sand  into 
a  rich  garden  soil,  kind  in  cultivation  and  prodigious  in  its 
yield  of  succulent  vegetables,  for  sand  is  best  of  all  ma- 
terial for  free  and  rapid  root  development. 


CHAPTER  V. 
GARDEN  IRRIGATION. 

It  has  already  been  intimated  that  the  irrigated  garden 
should  be  the  aim  of  all  who  desire  to  attain  the  fullest 
satisfaction  in  vegetable  growing.  But  while  it  is  true 
that  the  California  gardener  must  have  irrigation  to  do 
his  best  and  to  give  him  a  solid  year  of  rotations  and 
successions  in  his  garden,  due  emphasis  must  be  laid  upon 
the  fact  that  in  suitable  locations  the  unirrigated  garden 
in  California  is  a  greater  treasure  than  at  the  east.  This 
fact  is  due  to  the  character  of  our  winter  climate,  which, 
as  has  been  shown  in  a  previous  chapter,  is  actually  a 
growing  season  for  all  but  the  vegetables  which  will 
endure  no  frost.  By  using  to  their  fullest  capacity  our 
six  rainy  months,  by  early  cultivation  and  planting,  which 
will  be  fully  explained  later,  midwinter  and  spring  vege- 
tables can  be  produced  in  great  variety;  and  by  proper 
cultivation  for  the  retention  of  moisture,  tender  vegeta- 
bles, planted  toward  the  end  of  the  rainy  season,  will 
find  moisture  enough  stored  in  the  soil  to  carry  them  to 
perfection  in  midsummer  and  autumn,  although  not  a 
drop  of  rain  may  fall  from  the  sowing  of  the  seed  to 
the  gathering  of  the  crop.  For  this  reason  owners  of 
fairly  deep  and  retentive  soil  in  regions  of  ample  rainfall 
can  attain  splendid  results  without  irrigation,  if  they  will 
only  be  alert  for  prompt  work  and  persistent  in  summer 
cultivation. 

What  can  be  done  in  California  with  the  unirrigated 
garden  depends  upon  conditions  existing  in  each  locality. 
Character  and  depth  of  soil,  amount  of  rainfall,  degree 
of  heat,  and  percentage  of  relative  humidity  in  the  air, 


48  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES. 

the  lay  of  the  land — all  these  are  determining  factors, 
in  addition  to  the  dates  of  frost  occurrence  which  fix  the 
opening  and  closing  of  the  season  for  tender  plants  in 
the  open  ground.  Therefore  let  no  man  conclude  that 
he  cannot  grow  vegetables  until  he  completes  his  arrange- 
ment for  irrigation  unless  he  is  sure  that  his  winter  rain- 
fall is  too  uncertain  to  grow  even  a  crop  of  wheat,  for 
a  rainfall  that  will  carry  the  wheat  plant  to  maturity 
will  also  produce  quite  a  variety  of  garden  vegetables 
with  proper  practice  in  early  sowing  and  frequent  cul- 
tivation. 

And  from  this  low-water  mark  the  unirrigated  garden 
proceeds  upward  with  richer  endowment  of  favoring  local 
conditions,  insuring  length  of  growing  season  and  variety 
of  vegetables  until  it  really  becomes  a  question  whether 
irrigation  is  needed  at  all.  It  certainly  is  not  for  ample 
yield  of  many,  possibly  all,  of  the  staples  of  the  garden, 
but  to  insure  a  succession  of  salads  and  relishes,  pot- 
herbs and  legumes — in  short,  to  enjoy  the  fulness  of  the 
California  season,  the  irrigated  garden  is  the  thing  to 
be  diligently  striven  for. 

SOURCES  OF  IRRIGATION  WATER. 

Whence  the  garden  shall  receive  its  water  supply  is  a 
question  for  each  to  determine  according  to  his  environ- 
ment. Water  is  now  flowing  over  California  gardens 
from  various  sources  as  the  result  of  all  sorts  of  indi- 
vidual, co-operative,  and  corporate  efforts  and  invest- 
ments. It  would  require  volumes  to  describe  them.  Large 
irrigation  enterprises  are  the  joint  work  of  engineers  and 
capitalists.  That  gardener  is  fortunate  who  has  only  to 
buy  his  water  from  a  fair-dealing  ditch  company  or  draw 
his  share  from  a  co-operative  water  company  in  which 
he  has  an  interest.  Such  a  source  is  best  of  all  because 
causing  least  labor  and  expense  in  average  cases.  But 
there  will  always  remain  opportunities,  probably,  where 
farm  gardens  can  command  their  own  irrigation  supplies 


SOURCES  OP  WATER. 


49 


at  a  cost  which  will  warrant  the  effort.    It  is  in  this  line 
that  a  few  suggestions  will  be  offered. 

Surface  Sources. — In  the  unirrigated  regions   of  the 
State  there  are  countless  opportunities  for  home  supplies 


'~~-a*G»''' 

BOGGY  LAND  PRODUCED  BY  SEEPAGE. 


RECLAIMED  BY  RESERVOIR  BUILDING. 

of  irrigation  water  by  the  simple  process  of  allowing  it 
to  run  down  hill  your  way  instead  of  that  way  which  is 
natural  to  it.  Water  which  would  be  of  great  value  in 
the  house  and  barn  and  farm  garden  is  allowed  to  flow 
by  in  its  own  deep  channel  when  a  very  little  use  of  the 


50  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES. 

Level  would  show  that  a  part  of  it  could  be  taken  out 
into  a  ditch  or  pipe,  higher  up  its  course  through  the 
farm,  and  brought  along  with  less  fail  than  it  naturally 
takes,  until  it  reaches  the  buildings  high  up  the  slope 
above  the  bank  instead  of  in  the  deep  bed  it  has  cut  in 
the  soil  below.  This  is  very  simple  and  inexpensive,  and 
yet  we  have  many  hillside  places  in  the  central  and  north- 
ern parts  of  the  State  where  the  water  is  carried  up  by 
hand  to  the  house,  and  the  animals  are  driven  down  to 
the  water,  and  the  garden  is  neglected  because  it  is  too 
hard  work  to  haul  water  up  to  it.  Of  course,  there  are 
many  cases  where  such  an  obvious  resource  of  the  farm 
has  been  utilized,  but  there  are  many  where  it  is  neglected. 

Many  springs  on  the  hillsides  are  allowed  to  be 
trampled  into  mudholes  by  the  stock,  which  need  but 
cleaning  out  and  opening  up  to  yield  a  water-flow  beyond 
any  amount  which  the  old  outcropping  would  indicate. 
A  short  pipe  line  would  deliver  water  in  the  tops  of  the 
buildings  if  desired  and  would  generously  irrigate  all  the 
land  needed  for  the  family  garden.  And  yet  the  hillsides 
are  full  of  unused  springs. 

Between  the  hills  above  the  building  sites  there  are 
many  intervales  which  are  impassable  in  the  rainy  season 
and  covered  with  a  growth  of  sedges  and  swamp  grass 
all  summer.  They  are  natural  reservoirs  of  greater  or 
less  capacity,  holding  the  surface  water  and  underflow 
from  the  hillsides.  In  the  dry  season  plowing  and  scrap- 
ing will  easily  fashion  a  small  reservoir  at  the  lowest 
point  of  the  intervale  and  a  pipe  line  will  bring  down 
water  at  least  for  irrigation,  if  it  is  not  suited  for  other 
uses.  Or  if  there  be  below  a  better  site  for  a  reservoir, 
underdrainage  of  the  swamp  will  turn  it  to  the  growth 
of  good  grasses  while  the  outflow  from  the  drains  can 
be  concerted  into  garden  crops  below. 

Again  even  when  the  surface  after  the  rainy  season 
shows  no  sign  of  moisture,  it  is  often  possible  to  keep  a 
good  supply  in  sight  by  closing  some  small  vale  and  dry 


SOURCES  OF  WATER.  51 

creek  bed  with  a  dam  to  hold  for  summer  use  in  the 
garden  some  part  of  the  volumes  of  water  which  rush 
down  from  the  watershed  during  the  winter  rains. 

Subterranean  Water  Sources. — There  are  few  places 
where  water  for  a  home  garden  cannot  be  had  by  well- 
digging  and  there  are  many  large  districts  where  flowing 
wells  are  secured  by  shallow  boring.  At  the  bases  of  hills 
horizontal  wells  or  tunnels  are  frequently  satisfactory. 
The  capacity  of  these  wells  and  tunnels  is  sometimes  very 
great.  They  often  warrant  long-ditch  lines  or  figure  in 
the  supply  of  towns  and  cities.  Unquestionably  the  pres- 
ent development  of  water  by  these  means  is  only  a  frac- 
tion of  what  is  possible,  and  the  owner  of  untried  land 
should  undertake  a  reasonable  amount  of  prospecting.  It 
is,  of  course,  easy  to  waste  money  in  this  way,  but  if  one 
proceeds  after  as  full  study  as  he  can  make  of  the  surface, 
the  outcroppings  of  rock,  the  experience  of  others  in  the 
same  region,  he  is  pretty  sure  to  realize  upon  reasonable 
anticipations. 

Excavation  in  dry  creek  beds  of  gravel  and  boulders 
have  often  brought  to  light  considerable  underflow  which 
has  been  arrested  and  the  water  stored  by  cement  dams 
resting  on  the  bedrock. 

Flowing  wells  and  wells  which  bring  the  water  near  to 
the  surface  constitute  the  main  source  of  subterranean 
water  employed  in  California.  They  have  reclaimed  large 
districts  which  were  formerly  arid  wastes  and  they  are 
largely  used  also  for  summer  crops  in  the  regions  of  ample 
winter  rains.  Well  borers  equipped  with  good  appliances 
are  to  be  found  in  all  parts  of  the  State. 

WATER-LIFTING  DEVICES. 

At  this  point  it  will  be  well  to  remark  that  any  gardener 
is  fortunate  who  has  water  brought  to  the  highest  point 
of  his  plantation  by  its  own  weight  without  a  struggle  on 
his  part  against  the  force  of  gravity,  and  yet  there  are, 
of  course,  hundreds,  perhaps  thousands,  of  instances  of 


52  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES. 

satisfactory  home  gardening  by  simple  water-lifting  de- 
vices. 

Horizontal  Windmills. — Devices  based  upon  the  over- 
shot-wheel  principle  are  used  to  some  extent  on  this  coast, 
but  the  summer  winds  at  the  ground  surface  are  usually 
too  light  to  operate  them  well.  In  its  simplest  form  this 
windmill  consists  of  four  boards,  about  seven  feet  long, 
fastened  to  long  arms  projecting  from  an  axle,  which  has 
bearings  on  two  strong  posts  or  a  framework.  The  wind 
only  strikes  the  upper  part  of  the  wheel,  the  lower  part 
being  inclosed  by  a  board  fence.  In  a  slight  breeze  the 
mill  revolves  about  20  revolutions  per  minute,  but  in  a 
good,  stiff  gale  it  flies  so  fast  that  a  sliding  board  must 
be  raised  to  shut  off  the  wind.  The  wheel  is  connected 
with  the  plunger  of  the  pump  by  means  of  a  crank  at  one 
end  of  the  axle. 

Gasoline  and  Crude  Oil  Engines. — These  devices  have 
been  greatly  improved  during  the  last  few  years  and  are 
now  being  largely  employed  for  water  lifting  for  irriga- 
tion. There  are  several  manufacturers  in  California,  the 
fuel  is  very  cheap  here,  and  this,  in  connection  with  the 
ease  with  which  the  engines  are  managed,  constitute  them 
most  economical  and  satisfactory  agencies  for  pumping. 
The  manufacturers  give  full  information  and  can  usually 
cite  engines  in  operation  in  different  localities  where  their 
performances  can  be  personally  ascertained. 

Steam  Engines. — Pumping  plants  of  great  capacity 
operating  by  steam  power  are  also  in  use  for  irrigation. 
Large  vegetable  growing  enterprises  render  considerable 
investment  in  these  lines  profitable.  Their  construction 
and  operation  are,  however,  rather  beyond  the  scope  of 
this  work.  The  advice  of  a  mechanical  engineer  should 
be  secured  in  all  large  undertakings. 

The  Chinese  Pump. — A  water-lifting  device  which  is 
very  effective  for  a  short  lift,  as  from  a  ditch  gr  stream 
to  adjoining  lands,  is  the  Chinese  pump,  which  has  long 
been  in  use  in  California.  It  is  a  modified  "Persian 


LIFTING  WATER.  53 

wheel,"  and  is  so  simple  that  it  can  be  home-made  with 
old  threshing  machine  gearing  or  other  mechanical  junk. 
It  consists  of  an  endless  belt  working  like  the  "elevator" 
or  "straw  carrier"  of  a  threshing  machine.  For  instance, 
take  an  old  machine  belt  eight  inches  wide  and  twenty  feet 
long  or  sew  together  strong  canvas  to  make  one.  Make 
a  box  or  trough  about  nine  feet  long,  eight  inches  wide 
and  six  inches  deep  inside  measurement,  with  no  ends 
nor  cover.  Rig  at  each  end  of  this  box  a  wheel  or  pulley 
over  which  the  endless  belt  can  run.  Fasten  to  the  belt, 
a  few  inches  apart,  blocks  scant  eight  inches  long  and 
four  inches  wide,  so  that  the  belt  will  have  a  flat  surface 
on  one  side  and  the  other  crossed  with  the  blocks.  When 
this  is  placed  in  the  box  and  over  the  pulleys  at  each  end 
fasten  the  box  securely  in  an  inclined  position  with  the 
lower  end  in  the  water,  turn  the  upper  pulley  by  a  hand 
crank  or  a  small  belt  from  a  source  of  power  and  the 
blocks  will  elevate  the  water  and  shoot  it  out  from  the 
top  of  the  box  in  fine  style.  For  a  short  lift  this  apparatus 
discharges  quite  a  large  volume  of  water  with  compara- 
tively little  power. 

DEVICES  FOR  SELF-LIFTING  WATER  SUPPLY. 

Where  running  water  is  at  hand  in  ample  supply  and 
with  adequate  velocity,  the  water  can  be  made  to  lift  itself 
to  a  distributing  point,  if  not  too  high.  The  most  capa- 
cious agencies  belong  to  a  class  of  motors  called  current 
wheels. 

Current  Wheels. — A  current  wheel  is  an  arrangement 
resembling  the  paddle  wheel  of  a  steamboat,  with  a  cen- 
tral shaft  acting  as  a  hub  for  spoke-like  arms  which  carry 
on  their  ends  boxes  or  buckets.  The  wheel  is  hung  by 
the  projecting  ends  of  the  shaft  so  that  the  buckets  are 
just  covered  under  the  surface  of  the  water.  The  current 
catches  them  and  caused  the  wheel  to  revolve;  the  filled 
buckets  are  carried  up  as  empty  ones  descend  in  the  water. 
The  filled  buckets  are  emptied  as  the  turning  of  the  wheel 


54  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES. 

inverts  them,  and  the  water  is  caught  in  a  box  properly 
placed  and  is  then  conducted  by  a  flume  to  the  point  of 
discharge.  Current  wheels  are  largely  used  for  short  lifts 
from  streams  or  irrigation  ditches  in  which  the  water 
flows  with  sufficient  velocity  to  revolve  them.  The  wheels 
are  usually  home-made,  and  much  ingenuity  can  be  em- 
ployed in  constructing  them  of  available  materials. 

Hydraulic  Rams. — The  hydraulic  ram  is  wasteful  in  that 
it  can  deliver  at  a  higher  level  but  a  fraction  of  the  water 
furnished  it  and  it  requires  a  definite  fall  for  its  action. 
Where  conditions  are  favorable  it  does  become  an  effective 
agency  because  it  acts  incessantly  and,  with  suitable  stor- 
age, considerable  amounts  of  water  become  available  for 
irrigation.  Manufacturers  of  hydraulic  rams  furnish  full 
accounts  of  their  requirements  and  achievements. 

A  suggestive  combination  of  current  wheel  and  hy- 
draulic ram,  in  operation  in  this  State,  is  described  as 
follows : 

"A.  P.  Osborn's  residence  and  the  best  part  of  his  land 
are  located  on  high  grounds  on  the  bank  of  the  Tule  river, 
at  Rural.  To  get  water  on  this  land  without  going  several 
miles  up  the  river  and  bringing  out  a  ditch,  Mr.  Osborn 
has  placed  in  the  river  a  wheel  twenty-five  feet  in  diameter 
and  five  feet  wide.  Surrounding  this  wheel  on  either  side 
are  forty  boxes,  each  holding  four  gallons  of  water,  mak- 
ing in  all  eighty  boxes,  with  an  entire  lifting  capacity  of 
three  hundred  and  twenty  gallons  at  each  revolution  of 
the  wheel,  which  is  turned  by  the  current  of  the  river. 
As  the  boxes  reach  an  elevation  of  twenty-two  feet,  the 
water  in  them  is  emptied  into  a  flume,  which  conducts  it 
onward  into  an  irrigation  ditch.  This  elevating  the  water 
twenty-two  feet  is  only  sufficient  to  place  it  on  the  flat 
whereon  is  done  the  farming,  and  will  not  take  it  to  the 
knoll  on  which  stands  the  residence.  This  is  accomplished 
by  a  hydraulic  ram.  A  part  of  the  water  reaching  the  top 
of  the  river  bank  is  allowed  to  run  bac'i  down  the  steep 


THE  USE  OF  SIPHONS.  55 

bank  through  a  pipe,  thus  furnishing  motive-power  to  run 
the  ram,  which  sends  water  up  to  the  house." 

Conveying  Water  by  Siphon, — Conveying  water  over  a 
hill  to  a  point  of  delivery  on  the  other  side  which  is  lower 
than  the  supply  point  is  a  simple  operation  and  one  which 
might  be  more  generally  employed  than  it  is.  Siphons 
are  sometimes  made  of  pipes  of  considerable  diameter 
where  the  supply  is  large.  Such  devices  are  vastly  cheaper 
than  tunneling.  It  is  even  on  record  that  a  fruit  grower 
put  in  quite  an  expensive  pumping  plant  to  force  water 
over  a  hill  to  his  orchard  on  the  other  side  and  was  sur- 
prised to  find  that  the  water  ran  when  the  pump  was  not 
in  motion.  He  had  not  figured  that  the  delivery  point 
was  lower  than  the  supply  point,  but  so  it  was.  In  the 
case  of  conveying  water  from  rivers  to  leveed  lands  below 
the  stream,  the  siphon  is  cheaper  than  a  flood-gate  and 
safer,  and  has  the  advantage  of  being  portable. 

FARM  AND  GARDEN  RESERVOIRS. 
For  the  construction  of  a  dam  to  restrain  the  water  of 
a  creek  it  is  always  wisest  for  the  man  who  has  had  no 
experience  in  such  work  to  secure  the  advice  of  an  expert. 
Fortunately  such  men  are  very  abundant  in  California, 
as  dam  building  has  been  a  profession  of  Californians  ever 
since  early  mining  days.  The  making  of  water-tight  dams 
on  a  small  scale  is  not  necessarily  a  very  expensive  opera- 
tion, but  it  is  liable  to  become  so  if  not  done  properly.  An 
experienced  man  can  give  suggestions  as  to  the  location 
of  the  work  in  view  of  the  natural  conditions  and  the  use 
to  be  made  of  the  water,  the  character  of  natural  banks 
or  bottom  which  it  is  designed  to  use  and  the  best  mate- 
rials at  hand  for  building,  as  well  as  the  proper  form  of 
the  construction  for  safety  and  efficiency  in  connection 
with  economical  completion  of  the  job.  Expert  advice  is 
especially  necessary  where  dams  are  to  be  built  for  closing 
natural  waterways,  for  such  efforts  involve  the  handling 
of  volumes  of  storm  water  which  a  farmer  may  have  little 
conception  of,  though  he  may  have  grown  up  on  the  site. 


56  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES. 

The  excavation  of  a  small  reservoir  to  collect  water 
from  sources  wholly  apart  from  a  natural  watercourse  is 
a  simpler  proposition  and  can  easily  be  done  with  farm 
experience  and  appliances,  and  on  this  work  some  sug- 
gestions may  be  offered. 

First:  Location  is  governed  by  local  factors,  but  it 
should  be  at  sufficient  elevation  to  deliver  the  water  freely 
at  whatever  point  is  involved  in  its  use. 

Second:  Its  area  will  depend  upon  the  prospective 
water  supply.  If  this  is  ample,  do  not  make  the  pond  too 
small.  A  circular  reservoir  with  an  average  depth  of  four 
feet  through  a  circular  space  forty  feet  in  diameter,  will 
hold  water  enough  to  cover  about  two-thirds  of  an  acre 
two  inches  deep.  This  will  amount  to  a  good  soaking  of 
a  good-sized  farm  garden,  and  is  probably  as  small  a  dirt 
reservoir  as  it  will  be  worth  while  to  make.  For  smaller 
storage  wooden  or  galvanized-iron  tanks  can  well  be  used. 

Third:  In  shape  the  circle  is  easiest  to  mark  out  and 
construct  symmetrically  and  incloses  the  greatest  possible 
area  with  the  least  length  of  bank,  but  on  a  small  figure 
it  may  be  a  little  easier  to  handle  teams  and  scrapers  on 
an  oval. 

Fourth:  A  fairly  retentive  loam  free  from  rock  and 
rubbish,  upon  a  clay  subsoil,  favors  the  easiest  and  cheap- 
est construction  of  a  dirt  reservoir,  because  with  careful 
construction  it  can  be  made  water-tight  without  using 
other  materials.  Clay  is  disposed  to  leak  through  cracking 
and  sand  will  neither  hold  shape  nor  water.  Clay  and 
sand  mixed  forms  an  ideal  material. 

Fifth :  The  earth  surface  under  both  the  pond  and  the 
banks  must  be  thoroughly  cleaned  of  all  sods  and  trash 
and  the  whole  area  plowed  and  harrowed  well  to  make 
it  as  fine  as  possible.  The  dirt  should  not  be  dumped  on 
the  old  surface  to  start  the  bank.  When  the  whole  is 
plowed  and  harrowed  the  scraper  can  be  started,  moving 
the  dirt  from  the  center  to  the  banks,  and  each  scraper 
load  should  be  spread  and  lumps  broken  with  a  shovel  at 


RESERVOIR  BUILDING.  57 

once,  leveling  and  filling  hoofprints  so  that  all  tramping 
or  pressure  of  the  scraper  in  passing  may  tend  toward 
even  packing  of  the  soil.  All  spots  not  reached  by  the 
team  or  tools  should  be  tramped  by  the  shoveler  so  that 
no  loose  dirt  may  be  covered.  This  work  should  be  con- 
tinued all  through  the  building.  The  harrow  should  fol- 
low the  plow  in  the  bottom  before  the  scraper  moves  the 
dirt  to  the  bank. 

Sixth :  The  outflow  pipe  should  be  put  in  early.  A 
wooden  box  is  often  used  having  an  interior  space  of  six 
by  six  inches,  but  a  four  or  six  inch  lap-welded  steel  or 
cast-iron  pipe  is  vastly  better.  It  should  have  an  elbow 
turned  up  on  the  inside  so  that  a  plug  with  a  long  handle 
can  be  used  to  open  or  close  the  exit.  A  valve  is  better 
than  a  plug,  but  it  costs  more.  The  pipe  should  be  bedded 
in  a  mass  of  concrete  so  that  it  will  not  be  loosened  by 
working  the  exit  apparatus. 

Seventh:  The  width  of  the  embankment  is  governed 
by  its  height.  The  slopes  with  the  best  of  earth  should 
not  be  less  than  two  feet  horizontal  to  one  foot  vertical 
on  the  inside;  and  if  the  material  is  light,  three  to  one 
on  the  outside  will  be  none  too  much. 

Eighth :  The  bottom  and  inside  of  the  reservoir  banks 
should  be  well  puddled.  This  is  done  by  thorough  plowing 
and  harrowing  or  cultivating  to  a  depth  of  eight  inches 
and  then  admitting  water  slowly  and  keep  the  teams  going 
with  the  harrow.  Begin  at  the  center  and  work  round 
and  round  until  the  mud  becomes  as  smooth  as  pancake 
batter,  working  and  reworking  away  from  the  center  until 
the  puddle  is  carried  well  up  the  sloping  bank.  This 
puddle  layer,  if  the  soil  is  fitted  for  it,  will  make  the 
pond  hold  water. 

A  Small  Reservoir  in  Sandy  Soil. — The  foregoing  con: 
struction  will  not  hold  water  if  the  materials  are  too  coarse 
in  character.  Where  percolation  is  free  a  water-tight  cov- 
ering for  the  bottom  and  banks  must  be  provided.  This 
can  be  done  by  hauling  in  clay  for  a  puddle  or  the  reser- 


58  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES. 

voir  after  shaping  may  be  cemented.  In  parts  of  the  State 
where  asphaltum  is  abundant  this  material  is  very  satis- 
factorily used,  the  asphaltum  being  melted,  mixed  with 
sand  and  spread  on  hot  and  smoothed  down  well  with  hot 
shovels  and  hoes. 

Cement  can  be  used  in  the  form  of  a  mortar  made  of 
six  parts  sharp  clean  sand  to  one  part  Portland  cement. 
Apply  two  coats,  and  then  brush  over  with  a  whitewash 
of  clear  cement  and  water.  It  is  not  necessary  to  make 
walls  of  brick  or  stone  on  which  to  cement.  Cemented 
directly  on  the  earth,  even  if  it  be  sand  or  gravel,  answers 
perfectly.  As  we  have  no  earth-freezing  such  work  is 
safe.  If  there  should  be  cracks,  give  a  coat  of  clear  cement 
and  water  and  it  will  close  them  up. 

The  use  of  clay  puddle  is  also  very  satisfactory.  The 
following  is  the  plan  of  construction  followed  by  Mr.  Ed- 
ward Berwick,  of  Carmel  valley,  Monterey  county,  in 
building  a  reservoir  which  has  stood  thirty  years  of  con- 
stant use : 

"My  reservoir  is  eightly  feet  in  diameter  and  made  on 
land  with  a  slope  of  say  one  in  forty.  I  drove  a  peg  in 
for  a  center,  took  a  forty-foot  line  and  marked  a  circle. 
I  dug  a  trench  eighteen  inches  in  width,  say  three  feet 
deep  where  the  land  level  was  lowest  and  five  feet  where 
it  was  highest,  so  that  the  ditch  bottom  was  level.  I  filled 
the  ditch  with  puddled  clay,  well  tamped,  then  excavated 
a  width  of  perhaps  ten  feet,  just  inside  the  clay  ring,  to 
the  level  required  for  the  reservoir  bottom.  I  lined  this 
ten  feet  of  floor  with  clay,  being  careful  to  unite  the  clay 
of  the  ditch  ring  with  this  floor.  Then  began  clearing  out 
the  middle  of  the  reservoir  and  banking  up  on  this  ten- 
foot  floor,  and  also  on  outside,  at  the  same  time  adding 
clay  to  the  ditch  ring  as  the  embankment  grew. 

"When  the  required  excavation  was  made,  cleared  up 
well  to  the  edge  of  the  ten-foot  wide  floor,  I  put  in  the 
clay  for  the  rest  of  the  bottom,  uniting  it,  of  course,  with 
the  ten  feet  already  laid,  but  now  covered  with  the  inner 


RESERVOIR  BUILDING.  59 

embankment.  A  three-inch  discharge  pipe  was  laid  at  the 
bottom,  with  necessary  fittings. 

"The  reservoir  is  nearly  seven  feet  deep  when  filled, 
and  forms  an  excellent  bathing  tank  for  the  family  in 
addition  to  its  irrigation  service." 

This  is  a  very  thorough  style  of  construction.  It  would 
be  cheaper  to  excavate  as  described  in  the  previous  list 
of  suggestions  and  then  trust  to  a  clay  layer  evenly  spread 
over  the  bottom  and  sloping  sides,  but  the  use  of  the  pud- 
dle trench  and  flat  floor  is  surer  to  hold  water.  The  puddle 
trench  is  carried  to  the  top  of  the  bank :  clay  layering  on 
the  sloping  bank  will  crack  as  the  water  is  drawn  down 
and  is  apt  to  be  leaky.  Mr.  Berwick  has  scraped  out  a 
very  rich  deposit  of  mud  and  decayed  leaves  and  water 
weed  once  since  he  built  the  reservoir,  thus  obtaining  a 
considerable  amount  of  fertilizer,  and  after  scraping,  the 
bottom  was  given  a  new  floor  of  clay.  He  has  also  raised 
the  sides  of  the  reservoir  one  foot  and  put  in  exit  pipes  of 
four  and  six  inches  to  release  water  in  different  directions. 

Stone  or  Brick  Walls  for  Reservoirs. — Very  shapely  but 
rather  more  expensive  walls  can  of  course  be  made  of 
stone  or  brick  laid  in  cement,  and  in  this  way  the  water 
contents  of  the  same  diameter  can  be  increased.  The  bot- 
tom can  be  puddled  or  clayed  or  cemented,  according  to 
the  character  of  the  ground  or  the  taste  of  the  builder. 

Subterranean  Reservoirs. — Large  shallow  wells  are  often 
the  cheapest  reservoirs,  and  with  pumps  of  large  outflow 
sufficient  head  is  secured  for  direct  application  to  the  dis- 
tributing ditches.  Tunnels  are  also  subterranean  reser- 
voirs and  are  frequently  used  as  such.  Both  these  wells 
and  tunnels  are  economical  of  water,  as  evaporation  is 
very  slight.  The  following  is  an  instance  : 

"Mr.  C.  L.  Durban  says  that  the  cheapest  reservoir  that 
a  man  can  build  on  his  land  for  retaining  water  for  irri- 
gation purposes  is  a  tunnel  run  into  a  hill.  An  open  res- 
ervoir in  a  canon  or  other  suitable  place,  will  lose  one-third 
of  its  water  during  the  summer  from  evaporation,  while 


60  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES. 

in  a  tunnel  there  is  no  loss.  A  small  spring  will  supply 
a  tunnel  with  sufficient  water  for  many  purposes.  He  has 
illustrated  this  in  a  practical  manner.  On  his  own  land  at 
Mesilla  valley,  he  ran  a  tunnel  thirty-five  feet  long  into 
a  hill,  in  so  doing  tapping  a  spring ;  this  tunnel  he  dammed 
up,  leaving  a  space  thirty-five  feet  long  and  the  size  of 
the  tunnel,  which  is  about  five  feet  by  six  feet,  to  be  filled 
with  water.  The  water  he  carried  to  his  house  in  pipes, 
and  we  observed  that  it  supplied  his  dwelling,  another 
near  by,  his  barn  and  drying-house  for  raisins,  as  well  as 
irrigated  quite  a  space  devoted  to  flowers  for  a  garden. 
He  says  that  the  tunnel  is  the  cheapest  and  best  form,  and 
that  for  each  dollar  expended  one  can  obtain  a  space  equal 
to  twenty-five  cubic  feet." 

Another  form  of  subterranean  reservoir  consists  of 
trenches  filled  up  to  the  plow-depth  with  broken  rock.  It 
is  practiced  to  a  limited  extent  only.  It  is  prodigiously 
expensive  and  seems  only  worthy  of  consideration  in  the 
improvement  of  a  hillside  home  place,  where  satisfaction 
is  not  conditioned  upon  cost.  A  California  instance  of 
the  system  is  the  following: 

"The  grounds  have  too  great  a  slope  for  spraying, 
and  instead  of  supplying  surface  ditches,  the  owner  con- 
structed permanent  trenches,  which  have  no  outlet  except 
by  seepage.  These  trenches  extend  one  hundred  feet  in 
length  along  the  face  of  the  slope,  each  being  eighteen 
inches  deep  and  thirty  inches  wide.  The  earth  was  scat- 
tered on  the  upper  side  of  each  cut,  and  by  a  little  care 
in  plowing  the  garden  was  terraced  into  slopes  of  less 
grade,  each  one  hundred  feet  long  and  twenty-eight  feet 
wide.  As  a  driveway  passes  along  each  end  of  the  ter- 
races, nearly  all  the  cultivation  is  done  by  a  horse  turning 
on"  the  driveways.  The  trenches  are  designed  as  minia- 
ture reservoirs,  and  are  kept  nearly  full,  when  irrigation 
is  required,  by  a  small  stream  flowing  from  one-half-inch 
stand  pipes  at  one  end  of  each  trench.  This  is  also  a  form 


RAISED  AND  LOWERED  BEDS.  61 

of  sub-irrigation  as  well  as  storage,  for  the  water  reaches 
the  roots  of  the  plants  on  the  terrace  by  seepage." 

THE  APPLICATION  OF  WATER. 

Many  methods  are  followed  in  the  distribution  of  water 
in  the  garden.  Which  is  the  best  method  must  be  deter- 
mined largely  by  the  character  of  the  soil,  and  to  meet 
this  requirement  one  must  sometimes  sacrifice  some  of  the 
incidental  advantages  of  other  methods. 

Checks  and  Depressed  Beds.— Where  the  garden  soil  is 
very  light,  open  and  leachy,  the  vegetables  are  often  grown 
in  checks  or  divisions  larger  or  smaller,  according  to  the 
slope  of  the  land ;  the  checks  being  inclosed  by  little  banks 
or  levees  which  hold  the  water  from  escape  except  as  it 
sinks  vertically  into  the  soil.  This  is  the  only  way  by 
which  a  leachy  soil  can  be  uniformly  moistened,  except  by 
sprinkling,  which  is  seldom  economical  and  is  seldom  fol- 
lowed in  California  except  in  village  garden  practice. 
The  banks  of  the  checks  serve  as  walks  upon  which  one 
can  go  dry-shod  from  place  to  place  and  regulate  the  dis- 
tribution of  water.  The  garden  then,  during  irrigation, 
shows  the  plants  growing  in  shallow  vats  of  water  of 
irregular  shape  and  size,  and  when  the  water  sinks  away 
they  are  seen  to  be  in  sunken  beds.  This  system  sadly 
interferes  with  the  use  of  the  horse  in  cultivation  unless 
the  ground  is  practically  level  and  the  checks  can  be  made 
very  large.  In  small  checks  the  cultivation  must  be  done 
by  hand.  Market  gardeners  do  this  faithfully,  but  the 
amateur  is  apt  to  be  careless  about  it  and  to  trust  to 
frequently  filling  the  checks  instead  of  regularly  stirring 
the  soil.  This  tends  to  cement  the  surface,  exclude  the 
air  and  make  the  soil  sodden.  The  plants  lose  their  free, 
healthy  growth  and  show  their  distress. 

Raised  Beds. — These  are  just  the  reverse  of  the  check 
system,  for  the  ground  surface  is  raised  a  little  by  the 
dirt  thrown  out  in  excavating  narrow  ditches  about  four 
or  five  feet  apart  through  which  the  water  is  allowed  to 


82  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES. 

flow  slowly  if  the  ground  is  nearly  level ;  if  slightly  sloping 
small  dams  are  made  at  such  distances  apart  as  are  neces- 
sary to  hold  the  water  at  about  uniform  depth  below  the 
surfaces  of  the  beds.  In  this  system  the  distribution  of 
water  is  very  largely  accomplished  by  the  capillarity  of 
the  soil,  though  the  market  gardeners  who  affect  this 
method  also  shower  the  plants  from  time  to  time  by  throw- 
ing the  water  up  from  the  ditch  with  a  scoop  shovel  or 
a  shallow  pan.  The  narrow  ditches  serve  as  walks  in 
working  around  the  beds  and  rubber  boots  are  in  request. 
By  this  system  ample  water  supplies  are  constantly  had 
within  reach  of  the  roots,  and  as  the  surface  is  never  pud- 
dled it  is  easy  to  keep  it  loose  and  open  to  the  air.  When 
the  crop  is  gathered  the  whole  field  is  deeply  broken  up 
with  the  plow  and  harrow  and  the  whole  system  laid  out 
anew,  as  soon  as,  in  the  course  of  rotation,  a  crop  requir- 
ing such  hydropathic  treatment  comes  again  to  the  ground. 

Permanent  Ditches. — The  use  of  permanent  ditches  was 
formerly  very  common  in  the  irrigation  of  sloping  garden 
ground  and  is  still  somewhat  observed.  These  ditches  are 
drawn  very  nearly  on  contour  lines,  only  just  enough  fall 
being  given  to  move  the  water  slowly.  When  the  slope  is 
nearly  uniform  the  ditches  are  almost  parallel  and  they 
are  distanced  according  to  what  is  known  of  the  movement 
of  water  by  seepage  down  the  slope  in  each  particular 
soil.  The  plantings  are  made  on  the  ptan  of  each  strip 
securing  its  moisture  from  the  ditch  above,  and  water  is 
admitted  occasionally  or  kept  running  almost  continu- 
ously according  to  the  needs  of  the  particular  crop  or 
the  leakiness  of  the  ditch.  The  outflow  from  the  ditch, 
after  traversing  backward  and  forward  its  full  length,  is 
carried  to  an  alfalfa  patch  below  and  thus  utilized.  These 
permanent  ditches  serve  a  good  purpose  in  saving  hill- 
sides from  washing  as  they  catch  the  surface  storm  water 
before  it  has  a  chance  to  acquire  much  headway  and  carry 
it  down  gently.  Where  the  soil  favors  such  distribution 
very  good  results  are  attained  with  these  ditches,  but 


RAISED  AND  LOWERED  BEDS. 


63 


the  tendency  is  to  use  the  ditches  too  long  and  allow 
them  to  become  cemented  by  action  of  water  and  deposit 
of  slime.  Besides,  they  grow  weeds  and  distribute  seeds 
if  their  banks  are  neglected.  In  most  cases  it  is  better 
to  employ  less  permanency — breaking  up  the  ground  and 
locating  new  ditches  at  shorter  intervals  of  time. 

Lowland  Irrigation  by  Seepage. — Another  form  of  irri- 
gation by  means  of  permanent  ditches  is  that  practiced 


DEPRESSED  BEDS  AND  IRRIGATION  SYSTEM. 


RAISED  BEDS  OR  RIDGES  IRRIGATED  BY  CAPILLARITY. 

on  reclaimed  lands  along  the  interior  rivers.  When  the 
rivers  are  swollen  from  summer  melting  of  snow  in  the 
high  Sierra,  the  water  is  brought  to  the  land  by  flood- 
gates in  the  levees.  When  the  rivers  are  low  very  capa- 
cious pumping  plants  are  used — the  same  serving  at  other 
times  to  drain  the  lands  when  they  are  too  wet  from  the 
rainfall  or  seepage.  The  soils  of  these  reclaimed  lands 
are  loose  and  prone  to  dry  out  because  of  their  lack  of 
capillarity,  so  that  at  times  irrigation  is  as  necessary  as 


64  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES. 

on  uplands.  The  water  is  distributed  by  means  of  small, 
rather  deep,  ditches  from  which  moisture  readily  extends 
as  the  water  moves  out  over  the  clay  bottom  which 
underlies  most  of  these  lands  and  makes  it  possible  to 
hold  the  water  up  within  reach  of  the  roots  of  the  plants. 
With  rich  land,  high  heat  and  ample  moisture  just  below 
the  surface  the  growth  is  almost  marvelous.  On  these 
lowlands  flooding  the  surface  frequently  seriously  injures 
the  plants  by  sun  scald. 

Ridge  System  of  Irrigating  and  Planting. — Another 
plan  of  using  seepage  from  permanent  ditches  is  the  ridge 
system  by  which  the  water  is  run  at  a  little  elevation 
above  the  surface,  upright  plants  being  placed  beside 
the  water  on  the  top  of  the  rigdes  and  running  plants 
on  the  sides  of  the  ridges  with  the  lower  ground  between 
the  ridges  for  the  extension  of  their  growth.  The  gen- 
eral significance  of  the  arrangement  lies  in  keeping  the 
water  supply  constant  near  the  roots,  and  it  is  adapted 
to  rather  open  soils  in  which  lateral  percolation  is  defi- 
cient. The  elevation  of  the  ditch  thus  helps  to  hold  moist- 
ure near  the  surface  on  which  the  plants  are  placed 
without  resorting  to  flooding  as  in  the  check  system.  It 
is  obviously  well  adapted  to  a  region  of  very  light  rain- 
fall and  can  be  laid  out  in  a  way  to  drain  the  ridges 
when  surplus  water  has  to  be  disposed  of.  It  involves 
a  large  amount  of  hard  work.  In  a  locality  where  both 
summer  and  winter  gardening  must  be  largely  dependent 
upon  irrigation  it  has  striking  advantages.  The  follow- 
ing description  is  from  a  Kern  county  vegetable  grower, 
after  several  years'  satisfactory  experience  with  the 
method : 

"In  preparing  the  ground  make  it  as  near  level  as  pos- 
sible, and  cover  the  soil  with  about  two  inches  of  manure 
(avoiding  coarse  straw  or  stalks),  and  plow  this  under 
six  to  eight  inches  deep.  Then  harrow  and  cultivate  until 
the  soil  is  smooth  and  fine.  Use  a  wire  or  line  to  lay  out 
the  ground;  spread  fine  manure  (well  rotted  is  prefer- 


METHODS  WITH  IRRIGATION.  65 

able)  two  feet  wide  and  one  inch  thick,  on  a  line  directly 
from  your  windmill  or  tank  across  the  plat  of  ground. 
Take  a  plow  and  turn  two  furrows  together  directly  over 
the  manure,  making  a  high  ridge.  Smooth  and  firm  the 
soil  with  a  rake  or  hoe,  and  directly  on  top  and  length- 
wise of  the  ridge  form  a  ditch  or  trough  about  five  inches 
wide  and  three  inches  deep,  on  a  grade  so  the  water  will 
run  from  one  end  of  the  ridge  to  the  other,  connecting 
the  ends  so  that  the  water  will  run  the  entire  length  of 
all  the  ridges  without  any  attention;  or  you  can  make 
the  ridges  around  the  plat,  which  will  enable  you  to  dis- 
tribute the  water  from  the  ridge  to  any  point  desired  by 
means  of  a  small  piece  of  pipe  inserted  in  the  edge  of 
the  trough,  always  maintaining  a  uniformity  of  moisture, 
which  is  absolutely  necessary  for  the  growth  of  certain 
vegetables.  Run  the  water  through  the  ditch  until  it  is 
settled  and  well  moistened,  then  plant  the  seed  at  the 
base  and  either  side  of  the  ridge. 

"Do  not  allow  the  water  to  rise  up  over  the  beds  under 
any  circumstances.  If  the  work  is  properly  done  the 
water  will  run  through  the  ditches  in  the  high  ridges 
and  from  their  termination  will  continue  from  from  one 
trench  to  another,  till  each  bed  in  the  plat  is  nicely  moist- 
ened, and  after  once  thoroughly  wet  and  settled  it  will 
not  require  more  than  one-half  of  the  water  it  does  at 
first,  unless  the  soil  is  very  sandy  and  loose.  Remember 
it  is  the  small  stream  long  drawn  out  that  counts  and 
gives  the  best  results. " 

Practice  With  This  System. — Concerning  practice  with 
the  different  vegetables  and  the  preparation  of  ridges 
and  beds  for  them,  the  following  suggestions  are  given : 

"Plant  melons  and  winter  squash  seven  feet  apart  on 
each  side  of  the  ridge,  which  should  be  eight  feet  apart 
for  these  varieties,  and  about  five  feet  apart  for  corn, 
beans,  summer  crook-neck  squash,  cucumbers,  and  toma- 
toes. After  preparing  the  ground  and  planting  the  seed 
neither  the  ditch  nor  plants  will  require  much  attention 


66  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES. 

more  than  to  keep  the  weeds  out.  For  the  growth  of 
other  vegetables,  such  as  peas,  cauliflower,  cabbage,  car- 
rots, parsnips,  beets,  radish,  lettuce,  asparagus,  egg  plant, 
spinach,  peppers,  onions,  garlic,  rhubarb,  and  tomato 
plants,  prepare  the  ground  by  forming  into  beds  fourteen 
inches  wide  and  two  inches  higher  in  the  center  than  on 
either  ridge,  with  a  small  trench  between  them  six  inches 
wide  and  three  inches  deep.  They  can  be  made  wider 
and  deeper  if  a  large  amount  of  water  is  available.  After 
the  beds  are  prepared  run  the  water  through  them  and 
recrossing  the  beds  that  are  defective,  so  the  water  will 
rise  to  a  uniform  height  on  each,  within  about  one  inch 
of  the  top.  Make  a  depression  on  each  side  of  the  bed 
two  and  one-half  inches  from  the  edge  with  a  hoe  and 
one  and  one-half  inches  deep.  Sow  the  seed  not  less  than 
one-half  inch  apart  and  be  very  careful  not  to  cover  the 
seed  more  than  one-half  inch  deep.  Every  good  seed  will 
grow,  and  those  which  are  to  remain  in  the  rows  must 
be  properly  thinned  out.  When  tomato  plants  are  from 
three  to  five  inches  tall,  transplant  them  on  either  side 
of  the  high  ridges,  five  feet  apart  in  the  row.  Transplant 
cabbage  and  egg  plants  when  they  are  from  two  to  three 
inches  tall,  in  vacant  beds,  the  former  eighteen  inches 
apart  in  the  row  for  early  and  close  heading  varieties, 
and  twenty-eight  inches  apart  for  late  and  spreading 
varieties,  and  egg  plants  twenty-four  inches  apart  in  the 
row.  A  pint  of  fine  manure  from  the  cow-yard  placed 
six  inches  below  the  surface  under  each  plant  will  insure 
a  cabbage  from  nearly  every  plant.  Pepper  plants  should 
be  transplanted  eighteen  inches  apart  in  the  row." 

Picturesque  Irrigation. — A  modification  of  the  perma- 
nent ditch  plan  is  quite  widely  practiced  on  the  sand 
hills  south  of  San  Francisco.  The  water  is  lifted  from 
wells  by  windmills,  the  discharge  from  the  pump  being 
taken  at  such  elevation  that  it  will  flow  in  a  small  flume 
supported  by  a  trestle  to  the  highest  point  of  the  land 
to  be  irrigated.  Hence  the  water  is  carried  in  small  con- 


WINDMILLS  FOR  IRRIGATION.  67 

tour  ditches  hither  and  thither  until  every  corner  of  the 
very  irregular  slopes  is  reached.  Short  lines  of  vegeta- 
bles are  planted  about  at  right  angles  to  these  small 
permanent  ditches  and  short  spurs  made  with  the  hoe 
so  that  the  water  is  brought  beside  each  individual  plant. 
As  the  slope  is  so  broken  and  the  soil  so  open,  anything 
like  uniform  seepage  is  out  of  the  question.  The  appear- 
ance of  these  gardens  is  exceedingly  picturesque  with 
the  little  beds  tucked  in  here  and  there,  showing  varying 
shades  of  green  o  nminiature  terraces  and  slopes  and 
flats  irregularly  intermingled  often  within  the  area  of 
an  acre  or  two — the  lines  of  the  mill  frame  and  flume 
trestle  so  thin  and  long  and  intercrossed  as  to  suggest 
that  a  colossal  spider  had  spun  her  weg  upon  the  verdure. 
All  this  is  hand  work  and  back  work  in  cultivation  and 
irrigation,  in  carrying  manure  up  and  produce  down, 
and  represents  a  fragment  of  the  south  of  Europe  cast 
upon  the  map  of  California. 

Small  Furrow  Distribution.— All  the  foregoing  methods 
of  distribution  may  suggest  something  for  the  American 
farm  garden  in  California  providing  the  soil  and  situation 
are  best  served  in  such  ways,  but  for  the  most  part  the 
farm  garden  will  be  upon  land  of  moderate  slope  with 
loams  which  take  water  well  and  are  fairly  retentive  of 
it.  Under  such  circumstances  the  distribution  of  water 
in  many  small  streams  along  furrows  drawn  by  a  small 
plow,  accomplishing  complete  moistening  without  flood- 
ing of  the  surface,  is  the  system  to  be  adopted  and  con- 
scientiously practiced.  It  is  most  economical  of  water 
not  only  in  the  first  application  but  by  conservation  of  its 
moisture  by  the  thorough  surface  cultivation  which  must 
follow  each  irrigation.  Water  is  carried  along  the  ridge 
or  ridges  of  the  tract  in  a  plank  flume,  of  dimensions 
proportional  to  the  size  of  the  area  to  be  irrigated,  and 
with  many  openings,  to  be  closed  or  opened  at  pleasure, 
so  that  small  streams  of  water  can  be  brought  out  into 
many  small  furrows  and  allowed  to  proceed  slowly  until 


68  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES. 

they  reach  the  bottom  where  the  surplus  may  be  caught 
in  a  cross-furrow  and  carried  to  other  uses.  By  this 
method  the  water  can  be  evenly  distributed  with  hardly 
a  stroke  of  hand-work,  and  the  soil,  with  surface  always 
open  to  access  of  air,  and  never  allowed  to  compact  itself 
around  the  plants,  affords  conditions  perfectly  adapted 
to  thrifty,  quick  growth  of  the  plants.  This  method  con- 
forms best  with  the  most  economical  laying  off  of  the 
farm  garden,  viz. :  the  planting  in  long  rows  with  uni- 
form interspaces  so  that  horse-power  and  the  best  imple- 
ments can  be  employed  to  their  fullest  extent  in  every 
operation  from  the  seed  planting  to  the  gathering  of  the 
crop. 

Furrow  Irrigation  on  Hillsides. — It  is  often  desirable 
to  make  the  farm  garden  on  a  hillside,  and  this  can  be 
managed  by  horse-work  without  terracing  more  easily 
than  one  might  think  at  first.  The  plan  must  be  to  work 
nearly  on  contour  lines  in  laying  out  the  rows  of  vegeta- 
bles and  in  the  subsequent  cultivation  and  irrigation. 
The  following  will  be  found  suggestive  in  regard  to  the 
distribution  of  water: 

"The  water  is  delivered  from  a  flume  laid  down  the 
hillside,  and  fitted  with  cleats  at  each  hole  so  as  to  throw 
off  enough  water  at  the  sides,  or  sometimes  the  flume  is 
laid  in  steps  connected  with  a  bit  of  covered  flume  from 
step  to  step.  The  latter  is  best  for  very  steep  hills, 
though,  with  care,  the  other  may  be  used  on  a  greater 
slope  than  one  would  imagine.  Another  flume  should  be 
laid  at  the  end  of  the  furrows  to  carry  off  the  waste 
water. 

"The  contours  may  be  laid  out  by  anyone  with  a  car- 
penter's common  level.  Fifty-five  feet  to  the  mile  is 
nearly  right  for  a  very  fine  stream  on  most  soils.  And~ 
this  is  about  one  foot  in  ninety-six,  or  two  inches  in  six- 
teen feet.  Therefore,  take  a  sixteen-foot  plank  and  level 
it  to  a  slope  of  two  inches  in  its  whole  length.  Then 
when  the  upper  edge  is  level,  the  lower  edge  will  repre- 


FURROW  IRRIGATION.  69 

sent  the  required  grade  for  your  ditch.  In  this  way  the 
work  can  be  done  very  rapidly. 

"The  same  thing  is  equally  good  for  laying  common 
little  flumes,  cement  ditches,  etc.  But  in  earth,  one  should 
determine  by  trial  the  amount  of  slope  the  soil  will  stand 
without  cutting  or  filling  up  with  sediment  or  refusing 
to  run  fast  enough  in  case  the  soil  is  very  porous.  A 
mistake  of  a  few  inches  in  a  hundred  feet  will  generally 
not  be  serious,  but  the  more  nearly  exact  you  can  get  it 
the  better.  Every  approach  to  perfection  in  your  first 
arrangements  diminishes  your  future  work  and  annoy- 
ance. 

"All  manner  of  stuff  is  now  raised  in  this  way  in  Cali- 
fornia on  hillsides  that  a  few  years  ago,  when  covered 
with  brush,  seemed  too  steep  and  rough  even  to  plow. 
When  once  made,  the  furrows,  of  course,  are  left  in  place, 
but  the  water  finds  its  way  to  the  center  between  them 
quite  as  well  as  on  more  level  ground." 

Irrigation  by  Sprinkling. — Systems  of  iron  pipe  laid 
below  reach  of  plow  and  spade  and  furnished  with  stand 
pipes  and  revolving  sprinklers,  or  other  showering  de- 
vices, have  been  successfully  used  to  a  limited  extent, 
and  some  have  strongly  favored  them  in  spite  of  the  con- 
siderable cost  of  the  outfit.  They  are  worthy  of  consid- 
eration where  water  under  adequate  pressure  is  avail- 
able. They  are  labor-saving,  but  they  encourage  neglect 
of  cultivation,  and  to  that  extent  are  undesirable,  espe- 
cially on  soils  which  harden  on  drying. 

Sub-irrigation  by  Tile  or  Pipes. — Californians  have  been 
experimenting  with  subterranean  distribution  with  tile 
or  specially  constructed  pipes  and  outlets  for  probably 
more  than  forty  years,  and  yet  none  of  the  proposed  sys- 
tems has  ever  come  into  use  except  under  the  eye  of  the 
inventor.  In  early  days,  iron  troughs  inverted  on  red- 
wood boards;  small  flumes  or  boxes  of  redwood  boards; 
bricks  set  on  edge  and  covered  with  boards;  drain  tile 
with  and  without  perforations — all  these  were  suggested, 


70  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES. 

given  trial,  and  abandoned.  All  experiments  proceeded 
upon  the  plan  of  thus  making  permanent  water  conduits 
below  the  point  reached  in  spading  or  plowing,  and  they 
all  became  inoperative.  The  failure  was  usually  charged 
to  the  filling  of  the  pipes  with  plant  roots,  and  in  some 
cases  this  was  seen  to  be  the  reason.  In  other  cases  the 
failure  of  the  system  was  due  to  the  fact  that  in  light 
soils  lacking  capillarity,  the  water  rapidly  sank  away 
from  the  pipes  out  of  the  reach  of  the  roots,  and  shallow- 
rooting  platns  failed,  though  there  was  moisture  flowing 
to  waste  through  a  pervious  subsoil.  About  thirty  years 
ago  Mr.  E.  M.  Hamilton  of  East  Los  Angeles  invented 
a  system  of  continuous  cement  pipes  laid  by  a  machine 
operating  in  the  trench  which  prevent  access  of  roots 
because  it  had  openings  only  at  intervals  where  the  water 
was  discharged  into  air  spaces,  each  of  which  could  be 
seen  through  a  vertical  pipe  rising  to  the  surface  and 
furnished  with  a  cover.  This  worked  well  for  many  years 
on  Mr.  Hamilton's  place  for  the  irrigation  of  trees  or 
other  deep-rooting  plants  at  considerable  distances  apart, 
for  which  use  it  seems  best  suited.  To  fill  the  earth  with 
such  pipes  with  openings  near  enough  together  to  serve 
for  shallow-rooting  vegetables,  is  appallingly  expensive, 
and  the  stand  pipes  encumber  the  surface  so  that  nothing 
but  hand  spading  or  cultivating  could  be  done  without 
destruction  of  them. 

At  the  East  within  a  few  years  the  use  of  the  drain 
tile  laid  along  the  rows  of  vegetables  near  the  surface 
has  given  the  best  results  in  an  experimental  way.  By 
this  plan  the  tile  are  to  be  taken  up  and  relaid  for  each 
crop,  which  can  be  quickly  done.  Water  thus  adminis- 
tered may  serve  well  in  soil  not  disposed  to  puddle  down 
or  possibly  may  be  more  successful  where  the  summer 
air  is  less  dry  and  soil  baking  less  active  than  in  Cali- 
fornia, but  in  many  of  our  garden  soils  the  soil  would 
solidify,  and  even  if  moisture  were  adequate  to  prevent 


WINTER  IRRIGATION.  71 

baking,  the  proper  entrance  of  air  would  be  largely  pre- 
vented. 

The  experience  of  Californians  is  against  any  such  ar- 
rangement of  soil  and  water.  Except  in  such  soils  as 
have  already  been  described  as  working  well  by  seepage 
systems,  surface  application  of  water  followed  by  thor- 
ough surface  cultivation  produces,  as  a  rule,  the  best  com- 
bination of  moisture,  heat,  aeration,  and  rapid  root-exten- 
sion, which  pushes  the  plant  to  its  utmost  in  rapid  and 
satisfactory  growth. 

WINTER  IRRIGATION. 

Winter  irrigation  is  increasing  in  California  as  a  surety 
that  the  year's  water  supply  will  be  above  a  certain 
minimum.  Deciduous  trees  and  vines,  on  soil  that  is 
fairly  retentive,  can  be  carried  through  a  satisfactory 
year's  growth  and  fruiting,  with  good  cultivation,  by  ar- 
tificially soaking  the  soil  in  winter.  In  this  way  injury 
to  the  trees  or  vines  by  a  year  of  scant  rainfall  is  avoided. 
The  practice  has  not  the  same  value  in  garden  practice, 
because  there  still  will  remain  the  demand  for  summer 
irrigation  if  succession  of  fresh  vegetables  is  to  be  se- 
cured. But  for  ample  crops  of  staple  field  vegetables 
which  are  usually  grown  without  summer  irrigation,  the 
winter-soaking  method  is  of  the  same  importance  that  it 
is  with  fruit  trees — it  insures  ample  moisture  every  year. 

Fall  and  winter  irrigation  are  very  important  in  gar- 
dening in  regions  of  uncertain  rainfall,  because  they 
bring  the  soil  into  condition  for  the  early  planting  which 
is  often  the  secret  of  satisfaction  and  success.  In  south- 
ern California,  and  the  interior  of  the  central  regions  of 
the  State  as  well,  he  who  waits  for  rainfall  to  start  his 
gardening  often  loses  half  the  season's  producing  capac- 
ity. In  these  parts  of  the  State  the  rain  at  its  maximum 
is  seldom  excessive,  consequently  one  incurs  no  danger 
but  invites  every  benefit  by  wetting  the  soil  well  and 
going  to  work  at  least  with  the  hardier  vegetables  while 
the  autumn  sunshine  still  imparts  warmth  to  the  soil. 


72  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES. 

• 

The  use  of  winter  storm  water  often  results  in  a  con- 
siderable contribution  to  the  fertility  of  the  soil  in  the 
form  of  silt  and  other  materials  rich  in  plant  food. 

HOW  MUCH  IRRIGATION  IS  NEEDED? 

It  is  impossible  to  answer  this  question  exactly  for  any 
crop,  but  it  can  be  approximated  more  nearly  for  an  or- 
chard or  vineyard  or  a  field  crop  than  for  a  garden,  which 
should  be  held  up  to  its  maximum  of  free  water  nearly 
all  the  time.  Evidently  the  requirement  for  gardening 
is  greater  than  for  any  other  cropping.  How  much  water 
will  be  required  to  hold  any  piece  of  land  up  to  its  best 
estate  of  moisture,  depends  upon  the  plant  grown,  the 
soil  and  subsoil,  the  slope  and  exposure,  the  local  heat 
and  dryness  of  the  air,  the  rainfall,  etc.  The  quantity 
can,  then,  only  be  determined  for  each  piece  of  ground 
with  the'  data  of  its  conditions  and  environment,  and  the 
observing  man  will  allow  the  plants  to  tell  him  by  their 
vigor  and  speed  of  growth  how  the  supply  suits  them. 

Ardquate  Use  of  Water  Essential. — Beyond  any  theo- 
retical computation  of  the  amount  of  water  needed,  it  is 
one  of  the  plainest  teachings  of  California  experience 
that  good,  thorough  soaking  of  the  ground  is  the  secret 
of  satisfactory  results.  Surface  sprinkling  without  pene- 
tration is  a  delusion  even  in  lawn  growing.  It  gives  the 
impression  of  moisture  when  the  roots  of  the  plant  may 
be  famishing  in  dry  ground.  Pouring  on  water  from  a 
watering  pot,  though  it  be  once  every  day,  will  make 
a  brick  to  inclose  the  plant  stem  and  roots  if  the  soil  be 
prone  to  bake.  On  larger  scale  work  it  has  been  fully 
demonstrated  that  for  productiveness  a  small  piece  of 
ground  thoroughly  soaked  with  water  and  then  as  thor- 
oughly cultivated  on  the  surface  to  kill  weeds  and  pre- 
vent the  waste  of  moisture  into  the  air  by  evaporation, 
is  preferable  to  twice  the  surface  only  half  watered.  One 
very  thorough  wetting,  with  good  cultivation,  will  pro- 
duce better  results  than  several  superficial  waterings. 


MUST  BE  MOISTURE  ENOUGH.  73 

And  in  this  way  the  water  can  be  used  the  most  econom- 
ically by  accomplishing  the  most  good  with  the  least 
labor. 

Another  very  important  point  is  to  keep  the  moisture 
supply  always  adequate.  One  who  waits  till  the  plants 
show  distress  has  lost  his  chance.  One  of  our  experienced 
growers  very  pertinently  says:  "If  we  allow  our  ground 
to  get  the  least  bit  dry  the  vegetables  are  stunted  in 
growth,  and  then  it  takes  several  days  to  catch  up  again, 
if  it  ever  does.  I  hold  that  a  stunted  vegetable  is  as 
bad  as  a  stunted  calf  or  pig.  It  is  never  as  good  as  if  it 
was  pushed  right  along  from  the  beginning." 


CHAPTER  VI 
GARDEN  DRAINAGE  IN  CALIFORNIA. 

It  may  be  remarked,  as  a  generalization  based  upon  a 
wide  view  of  our  two-season  year,  that  the  secret  of 
success  in  California  vegetable  growing  consists  in  getting 
plants  "out  of  the  wet"  at  one  time  and  into  it  at  an- 
other. It  would,  perhaps,  be  more  exact  to  say  that 
success  lies  in  securing  generous  but  not  excessive  moist- 
ure at  all  times,  and  this  is  essential  to  the  best  growth 
of  the  plant  in  any  climate.  And  yet  so  strikingly  antith- 
etical are  our  moisture-extremes  at  the  height  of  the 
two  seasons,  and  so  characteristic,  both  in  times  and  meth- 
ods, are  the  policies  and  practices  by  which  we  modify 
both  to  the  best  advantage,  that  the  world-wide  princi- 
ples to  which  they  conform  are  out  of  sight  of  the  casual 
observer.  For  it  is  not  only  that  we  have  always  to 
guard  against  extremes  of  saturation  and  aridity  and 
keep  the  plant  along  the  lines  of  sufficiency — that  is  the 
universal  proposition.  In  addition  to  this,  California, 
speaking  generally,  has  to  do  special  work  against  one 
extreme  at  one  time  and  against  the  other  extreme  at 
another  time ;  hence  the  opening  remark. 

Regulation  of  moisture  in  California  either  involves 
more  considerations  than  are  usually  recognized  in  humid 
climates  or  involves  them  in  higher  degree  and  imputes 
to  them  increased  significance.  Choice  of  location  and 
soil;  time  and  method  of  planting  and  cultivation;  the 
choice  of  the  crop  with  reference  to  natural  moisture 
supply  and  the  atmospheric  conditions ;  the  employment 
of  irrigation ;  and  the  desirability,  or  otherwise,  of  arti- 
ficial drainage  facilities — all  these  are  factors  which  are 
perhaps  more  sharply  concerned  in  results  here  than  in 


BENEFITS  OF  DRAINAGE.  75 

humid  climates,  because  our  extremes,  in  all  except  low 
temperatures,  are  more  exacting.  Correct  practice  here 
gives  grand  results,  but  ill-timed  or  illy  adapted  practice 
does  not  give  merely  less  satisfactory  results:  it  invites 
failure.  Our  drainage  proposition  must  always  be  con- 
ditioned upon  proper  conservation  of  moisture,  and,  as 
will  be  seen  as  we  proceed  with  the  discussion,  contem- 
plated artificial  drainage  may  have  the  power  to  make  or 
ruin  a  crop  if  its  action  is  not  intelligently  employed,  or 
intelligently  rejected,  as  the  case  may  require. 

Benefits  of  Drainage. — It  may  be  admitted  at  the  outset 
that  in  regions  of  heavy  rainfall  or  in  locations  subject 
to  much  percolation  from  higher  lands,  underdrainage 
may  be  necessary  to  satisfactory  use  of  the  land  in  win- 
ter gardening  unless  the  soil  is  deep  and  free  enough  to 
readily  dispose  of  the  surplus  water.  As  a  matter  of 
fact,  it  is  necessary  in  some  cases,  and  gratifying  results 
follow  in  lowering  the  ground  water,  admitting  air,  warm- 
ing the  soil,  making  it  hospitable  to  the  plant,  rendering 
fertility  available  and  lengthening  the  growing  season 
of  the  plant  both  by  these  services  and  by  making  the 
soil  sooner  amenable  to  tillage  and  susceptible  of  better 
tilth.  All  these  are  general  drainage  principles  applicable 
here  as  elsewhere  and  in  some  soils  and  situations  the 
same  method  of  application  is  best,  viz. :  thorough  under- 
drainage preferably  with  tile  but  also  attainable  with 
trenches  partly  filled  with  rock,  or  with  regular  runways 
with  placed  stones  or  poles  or  boards  or  whatever  may 
be  most  available  to  the  person  at  the  time.  In  drainage 
for  garden  purposes,  however,  it  is  not  necessary  that 
the  water  table  should  be  lowered  as  far  as  is  essential 
to  the  satisfactory  growth  of  trees,  nor  is  it  desirable 
generally  that  it  should  be.  Tile  laid  two  feet  from  the 
surface  will  answer  in  most  cases  if  the  land  lies  well 
for  the  outflow  of  the  drainage. 

Conserving  Moisture.— The  general  purpose  in  Califor- 
nia gardening  must  be  to  save  moisture,  not  to  facilitate 


76  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES. 

its  escape.  It  is  especially  important  in  an  arid  country 
that  the  lower  strata  of  the  soil  should  be  a  storage  reser- 
voir for  the  use  of  the  plant  in  the  dry  season.  This 
fact  underlies  the  recommendations  for  cultivation  which 
will  be  given  in  a  later  chapter,  but  it  also  has  intimate 
relations  with  the  subject  of  drainage.  Evidently,  re- 
course to  drainage  should  not  endanger  the  generously 
adequate  moisture  supply  which  the  plant  needs,  and 
for  this  reason  the  almost  universal  exhortation  in  gar-^ 
dening  treatises  for  humid  climates:  "first  of  all,  deeply 
drain  your  soil,"  either  subject  the  trusting  Calif ornian  to 
a  useless  expense,  or,  worse  than  that,  makes  his  land  less 
suited  to  his  purpose  than  it  was  before  the  expenditure 
was  made. 

For  it  should  be  noted :  first,  that  our  light  deep  loams 
which  are  chiefly  used  for  garden  purposes,  can  naturally 
dispose  of  all  the  surplus  water  which  the  clouds  afford 
them;  second,  our  heavier  soils  sometimes  make  a  great 
surface  show  of  saturation  when  the  lower  layers  have 
really  far  less  than  their  holding  capacity,  because  per- 
colation is  slow,  not  only  by  nature  of  the  soil  but  by  the 
lack  of  thorough  tillage  which  would  help  to  hold  a  large 
precipitation  until  the  soil  could  absorb  it;  third,  our 
soils  dispose  of  moisture  very  rapidly  during  the  dry  in- 
tervals of  the  rainy  season,  and  this  can  be  increased  by 
winter  cultivation  which  should  not  aim  to  fine  the  sur- 
face but  to  open  it  to  the  air;  fourth,  by  their  active 
winter  growth,  the  plants  themselves  pump  from  the  sur- 
face layer  volumes  of  water,  the  escape  of  which  opens 
the  way  for  capillarity  to  relieve  lower  layers  of  their 
surplus,  and  thus  the  active  roots  help  to  prepare  the 
way  for  their  own  farther  extension. 

Really,  then,  what  California  soils  need  for  winter  gar- 
den purposes  is  natural  surface  drainage,  viz.,  downward 
into  thirsty  lower  layers:  upward  into  the  air  by  evap- 
oration from  earth-surfaces  or  plant-surfaces.  Where 
this  is  not  adequate  to  the  relief  of  surface  saturation 


WHEN  TO  DRAIN  LANDS.  77 

and  consequent  preparation  for  seed  sowing,  very  simple 
artificial  surface  drainage  is  usually  effective.  This  can 
be  mainly  accomplished  with  the  plow,  first  by  opening 
drainage  furrows  at  proper  intervals,  and  this  is  often 
all  that  is  needed  to  dispose  of  surplus  water;  second, 
by  ridging  with  the  plow  which  prepares  long  seed  beds 
a  little  above  the  general  surface  and  at  the  same  time 
leaves  channels  for  the  escape  of  the  water;  third,  by 
opening  deeper  surface-drains  to  act  directly  or  to  re^ 
ceive  and  speed  the  departure  of  the  outflow  from  the 
open  furrows.  All  of  these  forms  of  treatment,  selected 
according  to  the  degree  of  the  need  of  drainage,  have 
proved  widely  satisfactory  and  have  facilitated  magnifi- 
cent winter  growth  of  vegetables  upon  heavy  adobe  soils 
in  some  of  our  regions  of  heaviest  winter  rains.  The  ac- 
tion is  quicker  than  underdraining  because  percolation  is 
notably  slow  in  such  soil.  It  removes  the  surplus  from 
the  surface  just  at  the  time  that  its  absence  is  most  de- 
sirable and  it  leaves  the  moisture  stored  below  to  rise 
as  the  demand  for  it  advances.  On  the  other  hand,  under- 
drainage,  where  it  is  not  imperatively  demanded  by  ex- 
ceptional conditions,  has  clearly  acted  too  slowly  to  bring 
the  surface  speedily  into  satisfactory  condition  and  has 
acted  too  long  in  drawing  away  more  water  than  is  desira- 
ble from  below  and  has  then  continued  as  a  very  effec- 
tive hot-air  system  for  farther  drying  of  soil-substance 
which  should  have  retained  more  moisture  to  supply  the 
plant  and  foster  capillary  action  from  still  lower  layers. 
In  the  writer's  own  experience  shallow-rooting  plants 
have  dwindled  over  tile  lines  while  those  midway  be- 
tween the  lines  were  growing  rapidly. 

Conditions  Determining  Recourse  to  Underdrainage, — 
It  may  be  well  to  specify  a  few  of  the  conditions  which 
should  determine  whether  underdrainage  should  be  pro- 
vided in  land  under  consideration  for  vegetable  growing. 
Of  course,  the  claim  already  alluded  to,  that  any  piece 
of  soil  selected  for  gardening  must  be  first  underdrained, 


78  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES. 

is  an  exaggeration  anywhere  in  the  world  probably,  be- 
cause there  are  areas  of  naturally  well-drained  soil  every- 
where. Enough  has  been  said  of  California  garden  soils 
to  show  that  the  most  of  them  are  of  this  character  and 
that  no  probable  amount  of  rainfall  would  injure  them. 
The  exception  has  also  been  sufficiently  characterized  in 
the  chapter  on  soils. 

To  reach  assurance  for  or  against  underdrainage  in  par- 
ticular cases  one  has  to  consider  the  soil,  the  rainfall, 
the  character  of  the  root  growth  to  be  ministered  to,  the 
growing  season  of  the  crop,  and  the  practice  of  irrigation. 

The  mere  amount  of  rainfall  is  so  intimately  related 
to  soil  texture,  depth,  subsoil,  slope,  and  exposure  that, 
considered  alone,  it  affords  no  guide  whatever  to  the 
need  of  artificial  drainage.  There  are  many  situations  re- 
ceiving an  annual  rainfall  of  forty  to  sixty  inches  which 
not  only  do  not  need  underdrainage  but,  on  the  other 
hand,  irrigation  must  be  employed  as  early  as  May  to 
supply  the  requirements  of  shallow-rooting  plants.  There 
are  either  coarse,  leachy  soils  or  else  shallow  loams  lying 
upon  sloping  and  porous  bedrock.  Leaving  these  out  of 
consideration,  it  is  doubtful  whether  any  land,  even  of 
quite  retentive  character,  receiving  a  rainfall  of  not  more 
than  twenty-five  inches,  distributed  as  California  rainfall 
usually  is,  needs  underdrainage  for  garden  purposes.  Of 
course,  this  claim  clearly  presupposes  that  the  land  in 
question  does  not  receive  any  considerable  amount  of 
water  by  overflow  or  underflow  by  seepage  from  higher 
land.  Any  such  rainfall  as  noted  can  probably  be  con- 
trolled by  such  surface  use  or  surface  release  as  have 
already  been  described,  or  by  such  early  and  deep  culti- 
vation as  the  garden  should  receive,  there  can  be  stored 
in  the  soil  the  moderate  residuum  remaining  from  the 
amount  of  rainfall  indicated,  and  under  favorable  circum- 
stances a  greater  rainfall  can  be  thus  disposed  of. 

Deep-rooting  plants  like  fruit  trees  will  of  course  be 
injured  by  saturation  of  the  subsoil  which  would  not  in- 


IRRIGATION  AND  DRAINAGE.  79 

jure  garden  vegetables,  therefore  underdrainage  of  the 
orchard  is  a  different  proposition  from  that  of  the  garden. 
It  should  be  stated  for  the  distant  reader  that  the  term 
"garden"  in  California  is  not  understood  to  include  fruit 
trees,  except  in  villages  or  suburban  places. 

The  growing  season  of  the  vegetable  crop  is  also  re- 
lated to  the  matter  of  underdrainage.  While  the  winter 
garden  on  a  retentive  soil  in  a  region  of  quite  large  rain- 
fall, may  be  greatly  improved  by  underdrainage,  the  sum- 
mer growth  of  the  same  plants  perhaps,  and  of  field  crops 
of  shallow-rooting  vegetables,  may  be  benefited  by  such 
surface  treatment  during  the  winter  as  shall  promote  the 
absorption  and  retention  of  the  whole  rainfall  to  the  soil 
and  subsoil.  This  practice  may  insure  the  perfection  of 
a  crop  without  irrigation  which  could  not  be  grown  on 
a  less  retentive  soil  nor  on  one  currently  drained  on  its 
surplus  water. 

The  practice  of  irrigation  may  create  a  need  for  under- 
drainage which  may  not  exist  on  land  used  for  rainfall- 
gardening.  If  the  soil  is  naturally  well  drained  this  need 
will  not,  however,  occur,  unless  the  natural  escape  of  sur- 
plus water  has  been  destroyed  by  rise  of  the  bottom  water 
which  has,  in  some  large  districts  in  California,  followed 
excessive  irrigation,  and  the  seepage  of  water  from  leaky 
ditches.  Especially  unfortunate,  too,  has  it  been  that  this 
rise  of  the  ground  water  has  brought  within  reach  of  cap- 
illary action  and  surface  evaporation  alkaline  salts  which 
are  destructive  to  vegetation.  But  here  again  the  growth 
of  vegetables  can  be  successfully  pursued  on  lands  with 
water  too  near  the  surface  to  favor  fruit  trees,  providing 
the  rise  of  alkali  does  not  occur.  For  the  growth  of  vege- 
tables, then,  it  is  not  generally  imperative  that  the  land 
be  underdrained,  even  if  irrigation  is  practiced,  though 
there  are  cases  of  retentive  soils  in  which  this  is  desirable. 
In  irrigation  in  a  humid  climate  where  a  heavy  downfall 
of  rain  may  immediately  follow  a  saturation  by  irrigation, 


80  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES. 

underdrainage  is  a  safeguard.    California,  with  a  rainless 
summer,  is  freed  from  this  danger. 

Too  great  emphasis,  even  to  indulgence  in  repetition, 
can  hardly  be  placed  upon  the  point  of  view  held  in  this 
work.  We  are  dealing  for  the  most  part  with  plants  which 
are  used  before  maturity  and  in  which  large  free  growth 
of  foliage  stem  and  seed  vessel  are  the  points  desired  and 
not  mature  seed.  Most  of  these  plants  are  also  shallow- 
rooted  and  are  concerned  in  the  lower  layers  of  soil,  not 
as  a  place  of  root  activity,  but  rather  as  a  reservoir  of 
moisture  and  a  storehouse  of  plant  food  which  shall  come 
to  them  dissolved  in  the  upward  movement  of  abundant 
water.  Consequently,  these  plants  do  not  require  the 
degree  of  soil  dryness  which  best  ministers  to  maturing 
processes,  nor  do  they  need  such  deep  penetration  of  air 
as  is  needed  to  make  subsoils  hospitable  for  deep-rooting 
plants.  They  are  plants,  too,  which  need  the  maximum 
percentages  of  moisture  within  reach  to  secure  the  quick 
growth  and  succulence  which  makes  them  delicious  and 
profitable.  For  all  these  reasons,  the  view  of  underdrain- 
age here  presented  is  somewhat  at  variance  with  orthodox 
drainage  tenets  held  in  humid  climates  and  is  also  widely 
diverse  from  views  which  the  writer  holds  with  reference 
to  the  drainage  requirements  of  fruit  trees. 


CHAPTER  VII. 
CULTIVATION. 

The  timely  and  thorough  performance  of  the  several 
acts  which,  in  accordance  with  the  prevailing  local  con- 
ditions, constitute  good  tillage,  are  indispensable  to  suc- 
cess in  California  vegetable  growing.  No  matter  how 
favorable  the  natural  conditions  or  how  generous  the 
other  provisions  made  by  the  grower,  to  be  dilatory  or 
slack  in  cultivation  is  to  seriously  endanger,  if  not  to 
actually  forfeit,  the  final  reward. 

The  American  pioneers  were  quick  to  see  that  the  en- 
ergetic use  of  the  good  tools  to  which  they  had  been 
trained  in  their  old  homes  would  bring  marvelous  produc- 
tion from  lands  previously  held  at  grazing  value,  and, 
beginning  with  this  assurance,  they  proceeded  by  lessons 
of  observation  and  experience  until  they  learned  proper 
times  and  ways  of  working  under  the  novel  natural  con- 
ditions which  surrounded  them.  They  also  accomplished 
modifications  in  tools  for  tillage,  which,  from  a  local  point 
of  view,  are  notable  improvements,  and  they  devised  new 
forms  to  meet  special  conditions  or  purposes.  By  this 
empirical  method  they  ministered  to  their  own  success 
and  incidentally  demonstrated  the  truth  of  some  advanced 
theories  of  tillage  which  had  won  but  slight  recognition 
from  the  conservative  spirit  of  the  older  countries.  It  is 
an  interesting  fact,  also,  that  prevailing  California  prac- 
tice, in  some  important  regards,  accords  more  closely  with 
principles  deduced  from  elaborate  experimentation  by  the 
most  acute  and  patient  students  of  soil  physics,  than  does 
the  common  practice  of  older  countries. 

With  tillage,  as  with  other  gardening  duties  to  which 
reference  has  been  made,  there  are  in  California  wider 


82  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES. 

extremes  to  be  mastered,  and  methods  are  therefore  strik- 
ingly diverse.  Tillage  prepares  the  seed  bed,  facilitates 
germination  and  root-extension,  and  fosters  the  benign 
processes  of  soil  warmth  and  aeration  here  as  elsewhere. 
It  also  holds  the  same  relation  to  soil  moisture  here  as 
elsewhere,  but  its  services  in  this  particular  are  more  con- 
spicuous because  the  need  is  greater,  as  intimated  in  pre- 
vious chapters. 

The  common  California  conception  of  the  value  of  till- 
age naturally  seizes  upon  this  aspect  of  the  case  and 
asserts  that  the  chief  offices  of  soil  working  are  first  to 
get  as  much  moisture  as  possible  into  the  soil  and,  second, 
to  keep  it  there.  The  efficacy  of  certain  ways  and  times 
of  tillage  to  assist  in  the  escape  of  surplus  moisture  is  of 
course  known  to  those  who  have  this  work  to  do,  but  the 
area  in  which  such  acts  are  called  for  is  comparatively 
small.  It  is  quite  important,  however,  that  the  vegetable 
grower  should  have  it  in  mind  and  it  will  be  mentioned 
later. 

TILLAGE  TO  RECEIVE  MOISTURE. 

This  involves  both  time  and  method.  The  importance 
of  early  work  in  the  garden  has  been  incidentally  men- 
tioned and  will  be  further  urged  hereafter.  With  the 
rainfall-vegetable  grower,  early  plowing  of  the  land,  or 
early  digging  of  the  small  garden,  is  the  first  of  a  series 
of  timely  acts  which  are  neglected  at  great  peril. 

Summer  Fallow  as  Preparation  for  Vegetable  Planting. 
— The  best  way  to  be  early  with  one  season  is  to  begin  in 
the  previous  one,  if  possible.  A  bare  but  frequently 
stirred  summer  fallow  is  the  best  preparation  for  a  gar- 
den. A  piece  of  stubble  or  new  land  deeply  plowed  and 
subsoiled  and  left  unharrowed  in  the  fall  or  early  winter, 
cross-plowed  in  the  spring,  and"  then  worked  with  a  cul- 
tivator once  a  month  during  the  dry  season,  is  brought 
to  the  opening  of  the  rainfall-garden  season  in  good  con- 
dition from  at  least  three  points  of  view :  first,  it  has  been 
cleaned  of  many  weeds;  second,  it  has  been  improved  in 


TILLAGE  FOR  MOISTURE.  83 

tilth  and  fertility ;  and,  third,  it  has  a  storage  of  moisture 
from  the  previous  season's  rainfall.  Such  a  piece  of  land 
can  be  deeply  plowed  at  the  opening  of  the  rainy  season, 
and  can  be  at  once  planted  with  vegetables  for  winter  use 
which  are  hardy  in  the  locality  and  will  carry  them  along 
well,  even  if  there  be  very  little  rain  during  the  late  fall 
months,  with  its  content  of  stored  moisture.  Because  of 
its  deeply  stirred  surface,  freedom  from  hardpan  from 
previous  cultivation,  and  moist  subsoil,  it  is  in  its  best 
absorptive  condition,  and  by  subsequent  shallow  working 
as  each  vegetable  is  disposed  of,  rotation  or  succession 
can  proceed  on  the  same  ground  and  with  the  advancing 
winter  and  its  added  rainfall  planting  of  less  hardy  vege- 
tables can  be  made  until  the  frost-free  period  arrives  and 
the  garden  will  go  out  into  the  spring  and  summer  growth 
of  the  whole  list  of  hardy  and  tender  plants  witli  ample 
moisture  to  carry  them  to  perfection  during  the  dry  sea- 
son. 

Early  Beginning  for  Work  the  Same  Season. — But  it  is 
not  always  possible  to  give  the  year  of  rest  and  cleaning 
and  moisture  saving,  desirable  as  it  is.  In  that  case  the 
plowing  must  be  done  as  soon  as  the  rains  sufficiently 
moisten  the  soil  for  deep  plowing.  Sub-soiling  may  also 
be  done  with  advantage  if  the  rainfall  of  the  region  is 
generous;  if  not,  there  is  too  great  danger  that  much  of 
the  moisture  may  go  out  of  reach  of  the  shallow-rooting 
plant.  It  is  usually  not  as  safe  to  plant  as  early  on  newly 
plowed  land  as  upon  replowed  summer  fallow,  for  unless 
the  fall  rains  are  above  the  average  the  plants  may  be 
less  thrifty  than  those  planted  later  when  full  moisture 
is  assured.  This  is,  of  course,  a  matter  for  local  deter- 
mination, as  it  is  conditioned  upon  local  rainfall. 

Even  if  for  any  reason  it  is  not  thought  desirable  to 
plant  vegetables  in  the  open  air  until  February,  and  this 
is  a  practice  in  localities  where  fall  and  early  winter  tem- 
peratures are  rather  low,  still  the  early  plowing  is  neces- 


84  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES. 

sary  to  moisture-saving,  and  cross-plowing  should  follow 
in  preparation  for  planting. 

Land  designed  for  spring  planting  of  tender  vegetables 
should  also  receive  early  and  thorough  fall  plowing  and 
a  subsequent  winter  plowing  or  spring  plowing  before 
the  weed  growth  becomes  too  heavy  for  turning  under  or 
so  coarse  that  plowing  under  will  make  a  non-retentive 
soil  still  more  prone  to  drying  out  the  following  summer. 

TILLAGE  TO  CONSERVE  MOISTURE. 

Tillage  to  receive  moisture  designs  to  open  the  soil  and 
to  assist  percolation  with  a  view  to  prevent  surface  flow 
and  to  absorb  the  rainfall.  Tillage  to  save  moisture  aims 
to  reduce  evaporation  to  a  minimum.  In  a  firm  soil  moist- 
ure rises  by  capillary  attraction  and  is  rapidly  removed 
from  the  surface  by  evaporation.  A  light  soil  has  less 
capillarity  than  a  heavy  one.  A  sandy  soil  has  less  than 
clay,  but  both  lose  water  by  surface  evaporation  until, 
in  an  arid  climate,  plants  will  die  of  thrist  unless  they 
be  by  nature  drought-resisting.  Garden  vegetables  are 
not  of  that  character;  in  fact,  quite  the  reverse.  Conse- 
quently, some  means  must  be  adopted  to  prevent  the 
moisture  which  is  rising  in  the  soil  from  reaching  contact 
with  the  outer  air.  This  can  be  done  by  placing  a  cover- 
ing upon  the  compact  portion  of  the  soil  so  that  the  air 
shall  not  have  free  access  to  it.  Covering  with  a  sufficient 
amount  of  almost  any  coarse  material,  such  as  coarse 
manure  or  rotten  straw  or  sawdust  or  anything  of  that 
sort,  is  troublesome  and  expensive  and  otherwise  objec- 
tionable, although  it  has  an  acknowledged  place  in  garden 
practice,  as  will  be  shown  later. 

The  Earth  Mulch. — California  practice  has  made  the 
widest  application  of  the  truth  that  a  finely  pulverized 
surface  layer  of  sufficient  depth  is  an  effective  mulch. 
Pulverizing  the  soil  widens  the  distance  between  its  par- 
ticles and  consequently  destroys  its  capillarity  until  by 
the  action  of  moisture,  either  in  the  form  of  liquid  or 


HOW  MOISTURE  IS  CONSERVED.  85 

vapor,  it  becomes  again  compacted  to  a  degree  which  re- 
stores its  power  to  transmit  moisture.  The  cultivator  has 
it,  then,  within  his  power  to  spread  a  mulch  and  check 
evaporation  simply  by  fine  and  frequent  pulverization  of 
the  surface  layer  by  cultivation.  It  is  this  ability  which 
enables  the  California  horticulturist  to  transform  the 
lower  layers  of  his  soil  into  a  reservoir,  and  to  profit  by 
the  natural  tendency  of  the  moisture  to  rise  in  the  com- 
pact soil  until  it  reaches  the  point  where  the  pulverized 
layer  checks  its  advance.  This  practice  makes  possible  an 
achievement  which  seems  almost  incredible  to  workers  in 
humid  climates,  viz. :  the  growing  of  a  succulent  crop 
from  seeding  to  harvest  without  the  use  of  a  drop  of 
water  either  by  rain  or  irrigation,  and  it  is  this  practice, 
coupled  with  the  deeper  rooting  habit  of  plants  which  is 
induced  by  it,  which  enables  our  trees  and  field  crops  to 
grow  thriftily  and  produce  heavily  during  months  of 
drought,  while  a  few  weeks  of  drought  bring  distress  to 
plants  in  humid  climates. 

But  the  pulverized  surface  layer  must  do  more  than 
arrest  the  capillary  rise  of  moisture  before  it  reaches  the 
surface  :  it  must  check  it  at  a  point  out  of  reach  of  the  free 
entrance  of  air  to  the  loose  layer,  consequently  the  de- 
gree of  pulverization  and  the  depth  of  the  loose  layer  are 
factors  to  be  carefully  observed.  It  is  not  enough  to  grind 
an  inch  or  two  of  the  surface  to  powder.  The  free  move- 
ment of  air  through  this  shallow  layer  at  least  in  our  sum- 
mer air  with  its  exceptional  thrist,  will  proceed  with  evap- 
oration from  the  too  thinly  covered  compact  portion  and 
the  loss  of  moisture  will  be  only  a  little  less  rapid  and  com- 
plete than  if  the  surface  had  not  been  disturbed  at  all. 
The  same  thing  will  happen  if  the  surface  layer  be  only 
coarsely  broken  to  a  still  greater  depth :  the  passage  of 
air  through  the  clods  will  be  free  enough  to  draw  off  the 
moisture  and  the  soil  will  dry  out  to  a  degree  which  will 
bring  distress  to  plants  which  good  cultivation  would  have 
maintained  in  vigorous  growth.  It  is  plain  then  that 


86 


CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES. 


IDEAL  DEVELOPMENT  OF  BEET  ROOT,  SHOWING  ADVAN- 
TAGES OF  DEEP  CULTIVATION  FOR  ROOT  CROPS. 

the  earth  mulch  must  be  fine  enough  and  deep  enough  to 
serve  its  intended  purpose  and  for  this  no  arbitrary  rule 
can  be  laid  down  except  that  the  coarser  the  soil  by  nature 
or  the  coarser  the  particles  by  cultivation,  the  deeper  the 


METHODS  OF  TILLAGE.  87 

mulch  must  be.  The  practical  test  is  easy :  if  the  pulver- 
ized layer  becomes  dry  and  if  on  brushing  it  aside  with 
the  foot,  the  firm  surface  is  hard  and  more  or  less  dry  also, 
the  mulch  is  not  effective  and  its  character  must  be  im- 
proved. 

Steps  by  Which  Conservation  is  Attained. — The  foun- 
dation for  a  satisfactory  moisture-conserving  tilth  is  laid 
with  the  plow  during  the  fall  or  winter  preceding  the 
summer  during  which  it  is  to  be  maintained.  Though 
plowing  has  been  considered  as  a  factor  in  opening  the 
soil  to  receive  and  store  moisture  it  is  also  considered  in 
its  conservation.  To  do  this  the  plow  must  be  used  when 
the  soil  is  in  the  best  condition  not  only  for  turning  but 
for  disintegrating  by  the  crushing  action  of  the  mold 
board  so  that  the  soil  particles  shall  lie  closely  upon  the 
firm  portion  and  not  form  large  air  spaces  which  minister 
to  drying  out.  Plowing  when  the  soil  is  unfit  results  in 
clods,  which  are  every  way  hateful  in  the  garden,  and  in 
air  spaces,  which  are  objectionable,  as  shown.  Even  when 
the  soil  is  in  reasonably  good  condition,  late  plowing,  if 
left  rough  and  open  to  dry  winds,  will  form  clods  in  all 
except  the  loosest  soils,  consequently  all  late  plowing 
should  be  at  once  well  harrowed. 

The  next  step  in  the  assurance  of  a  good  earth  mulch 
is  the  early  use  of  the  cultivator.  It  will  not  do  to  allow 
the  harrowed  soil  to  crust  by  rains  and  then  trust  to  some 
later  rain  to  loosen  and  rescue  the  young  plants  from  its 
embrace.  Just  as  soon  as  the  soil  arrives  in  condition 
after  a  rain,  stir  the  surface  well  and  the  crust  will  not  be 
formed,  and  this  must  be  done  just  as  soon  as  crust-form- 
ing conditions  recur.  In  this  way  the  soil  surface  is  con- 
stantly kept  in  good  absorbing  condition  and  is  also  car- 
ried on  its  way  to  the  best  conserving  condition  as  well. 
Weed  growth,  which  is  moisture  wasting,  is  also  pre- 
vented. 

Then  comes  the  summer  cultivation  to  retain  such  an 
earth-mulch  as  has  been  described.  If  it  proceeds  upon 


88  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES. 

previous  good  work  in  clod  and  crust  preventing  the  vege- 
table grower  is  fortunate.  If  not,  he  must  have  recourse 
to  whatever  implements  for  clod-crushing,  cutting,  chop- 
ping and  grinding,  work  best  in  his  soil,  for,  as  there  can 
be  no  best  plow  for  all  soils,  so  also  there  can  be  no  best 
cultivator.  The  grower  must  learn  to  recognize  the  con- 
dition which  he  wishes  to  attain  and  then  experiment  with 
tools  until  he  finds  the  best  for  his  soil.  Summer  cultiva- 
tion means  cultivation  all  summer,  or  at  least  as  long  as 
growths  are  still  progressing.  To  reduce  to  good  tilth  in 
the  spring  and  then  "lay  by"  the  garden  or  else  to  count 
upon  later  cultivation  only  in  the  case  of  later  rains,  is 
not  adequate  cultivation  for  moisture  conservation.  The 
earth  mulch  will  have  its  capillarity  restored  by  its  own 
absorption  of  moisture  from  below  or  from  the  air,  and 
it  will  lose  its  efficiency  as  a  protecting  cover  even  through 
no  rain  falls.  Therefore  frequent  stirring  to  the  adequate 
depth  but  without  soil-turning  must  be  maintained  at  in- 
tervals both  to  restore  the  mulch  and  to  destroy  weeds 
which  may  start  late  and  pump  moisture  away  from  the 
plants  in  almost  incredible  amount.  Remember,  though 
no  crust  forms  and  no  weeds  start,  the  cultivator  must  fre- 
quently restore  the  surface  layer  to  its  condition  as  an 
efficient  mulch  if  the  greatest  possible  amount  of  moisture 
is  to  be  conserved. 

CULTIVATION  IN  SMALL  GARDENS. 

Work  with  spading-fork,  hoe  and  rake  in  the  hand- 
made garden  is  subject  to  exactly  the  same  requirements 
as  those  described  for  the  horse-power  garden  or  vege- 
table field.  Early  and  deep  digging  for  moisture  recep- 
tion and  storage,  as  well  as  to  welcome  root-penetration, 
must  be  followed  by  coarse  raking  to  maintain  a  surface 
fit  for  absorption  and  not  favorable  to  crusting  while  the 
rainy  season  advances,  and,  after  the  rains  have  ceased, 
there  must  be  frequent  deep  hoeing  and  fine  raking  to 
maintain  the  earth-mulch  which  has  already  been  charac- 
terized. 


HOW  TO  HOE.  89 

The  Man  with  the  Hoe. — The  use  of  the  hoe  at  different 
seasons  in  the  California  garden  and  the  contrast  between 
summer  hoeing  as  practised  in  arid  and  humid  climates 
is  so  strikingly  illustrative,  of  the  sort  of  tillage  which 
gives  in  California  rank  summer  growth  without  rain, 
that  a  few  comments  will  be  indulged  in. 

The  first  and  most  obvious  reflection  which  comes  to 
one  who  does  summer  hoeing  in  an  arid  land  is  that  the 
handling  of  the  hoe  which  he  practised  in  his  boyhood 
in  eastern  garden  or  cornfield  is  not  the  hoeing  which 
avails  most  now  and  here.  The  light,  shallow  stroke  which 
fell  just  below  the  root  crown  of  the  weed,  stirred  the 
immediate  surface  a  little  and  left  the  field  clean,  used  to 
be  the  touch  for  eastern  hoeing,  and  a  man  could  almost 
do  it  at  walking  speed  for  hours  upon  hours.  Except  a 
little  extra  deep  work,  which  was  called  for  when  the  oc- 
casional short  droughts  threatened,  this  shallow  weed- 
cutting  was  sufficient  to  give  the  crop  the  upper  hand  in 
the  struggle  with  weeds,  and  the  frequent  showers  kept 
the  surface  moist  enough  to  prevent  baking. 

It  is  to  be  inferred  from  recent  reports  that  there  is  less 
shallow  hoeing  done  now  than  a  generation  ago  at  the 
east,  and  deeper  summer  cultivation  has  been  found  profit- 
able there.  However  this  may  be,  it  is  clear  that  shallow 
hoeing  is  a  delusion  and  a  snare  in  this  country.  Practice 
it  through  the  spring  and  as  long  as  the  weeds  start,  and 
your  garden  surface  will  be  dusty.  Think  then  content- 
edly about  what  you  have  heard  of  a  mulch  of  dust-retain- 
ing moisture.  Can  it  be  possible,  instead  of  shooting  up- 
ward, the  plant  just  holds  its  own  and  then  goes  backward, 
wilting,  yellowing  its  leaves,  and  all  but  dying  in  its  dis- 
tress? Surely  there  must  be  a  worm  at  the  root.  The  hoe 
is  seized  and  brought  down  upon  the  soil  at  an  angle  and 
with  a  force  it  has  not  known  all  summer.  How  the  dust 
flies  from  the  surface,  and  how  the  hoe  flies  from  the 
hard-pan  just  beneath  the  dust  as  though  it  had  been 
brought  down  upon  a  marble  slab.  Then  there  come  to 


90  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES. 

mind  thought  on  hoeing  which  never  came  before.  Then 
it  becomes  plain  that  the  shallow  weed-cutting  stroke  is 
not  the  dash  of  the  hoe  which  saves  the  plant. 

One  who  goes  through  this  experience  once  will  know 
better  how  to  hoe  next  time.  *  He  will  see  that  by  sharp, 
deep  strokes,  often  using  the  corners  of  the  blade,  he  will 
maintain  a  loose  layer  upon  the  surface  which  will  be 
thick  enough  to  prevent  direct  evaporation  from  a  hard- 
pan  layer  and  thus  break  the  connection  between  capil- 
lary action  and  the  atmosphere.  Such  hoeing  is  harder 
than  light  work  with  the  blade  nearly  horizontal.  It 
takes  muscle  to  give  a  strong  vertical  stroke  which  pene- 
trates well,  and  one  cannot  waltz  along  the  rows  whistling 
a  lively  tune,  as  is  quite  possible  while  weed-cutting  in 
moist  soil  in  February. 

There  is  little  grace,  we  admit,  in  the  attitude  of  the 
Italian  market  gardener,  as  he  straddles  the  row,  arches 
his  back  and  grunts  as  he  sends  his  heavy  mattock  its 
full  depth  into  the  soil  around  the  plants.  The  American 
with  his  fine,  new,  full-width,  bronze-shanked,  green-la- 
beled steel  hoe,  marching  along  the  rows,  touching  the 
soil  with  disdain  as  ill  worth  exertion  on  his  part,  is  a 
much  handsomer  picture.  But  the  Italian's  plants  laugh 
at  drought.  When  irrigated  the  soil  takes  water  like  a 
sponge  and  it  goes  plump  down  to  the  roots  of  the  plant. 
Irrigate  the  shallow-hoed  plat;  a  pailful  will  run  a  rod 
and  the  plant  root  gets  but  the  gurgle  of  the  water  as  it 
flows  along  the  surface  of  the  hard  pan  just  beneath  the 
dust. 

Evidently,  if  one  begins  early  in  the  season  with  deep 
hoeing,  the  midsummer  tussle  with  hard-pan  will  be  ob- 
viated.   This  is  really  the  lesson  to  be  learned. 
CULTIVATION  AND  IRRIGATION. 

All  that  has  been  said  about  the  relations  of  tillage  to 
reception  and  conservation  of  moisture  from  rainfall  is  of 
equal  truth  as  related  to  moisture  derived  from  irriga- 
tion. Soils  not  readily  absorptive  must  be  opened  by 


THE  AMERICAN  AND  THE  ITALIAN.  91 

proper  tillage  to  receive  the  waterflow.  Such  is  the  ser- 
vice rendered  by  the  furrow  system  in  addition  to  its  fur- 
nishing channels  for  the  flow.  Soils  naturally  open  will 
take  water  as  well,  and  sometimes  better,  by  other  meth- 
ods, as  has  already  been  explained.  But  by  whatever 
means  water  is  brought  to  the  soil  the  conservation  of 
the  water  depends  largely  upon  the  prevention  of  surface 
evaporation  which  not  only  releases  moisture  but  turns 
the  upper  soil  into  a  pavement  which  is  fatal  to  shallow- 
rooting  plants.  Therefore  let  the  plow  follow  the  irri- 
gation, if  it  is  fall  or  winter  irrigation  for  the  preparation 
of  a  seed  bed,  and  let  the  cultivator  do  its  work  finely 
and  to  sufficient  depth  if  it  is  summer  irrigation  for  ad- 
vanced plant  growth.  Do  not  let  the  irrigated  land  lie 
until  it  yields  clods  to  the  cultivator.  Seize  it  soon,  as 
good  tilth  waits  on  stirring;  "and  when  'tis  done  then 
'twere  well  it  were  done  quickly." 

RIDGES,  HILLS,  RAISED  BEDS  AND  LEVEL 
CULTURE. 

Though  the  considerations  suggested  by  these  words  are 
involved  in  irrigation  and  drainage,  they  are  commonly 
regarded  as  phases  of  cultivation.  It  is  almost  obvious 
that  all  methods  of  lifting  the  plant  bed  above  the  com- 
mon surface  are  equivalent  to  providing  it  with  the  fullest 
facilities  for  surface  drainage.  Whenever,  then,  ridging 
or  hilling  or  raising  whole  garden  beds  is  prastised  with- 
out connection  with  irrigation  upon  the  elevated  surface, 
it  affords  exceptional  means  for  the  escape  of  surplus 
water  and  relief  to  the  plant  from  saturated  soil.  By  this 
act  the  winter  growth  of  vegetables,  hardly  enough  to 
withstand  the  local  climate,  can  be  carried  on  in  the  most 
retentive  soil  under  a  very  heavy  rainfall. 

Ridging. — It  matters  not  whether  this  ridging  is  done 
very  quickly  with  the  plow  by  back  furrowing  or  whether 
a  raised  bed  is  made  in  the  small  garden  with  a  retaining 
border,  the  principle  is  the  same  and  it  is  a  very  useful 
one.  It  affords  a  ready  answer  to  the  requirement  which 


92  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES. 

exists  in  many  parts  of  California  for  facilitating  winter 
growth  by  drainage  without  at  the  same  time  endanger- 
ing too  great  loss  of  water  for  summer  cropping.  The 
back  furrow  gives  the  plants  a  greater  depth  of  stirred 
soil,  which  is  especially  valuable  in  the  rainy  season.  Af- 
ter the  early  crop  of  hardy  vegetables  is  disposed  of  there 
will  still  be  time  to  plow  down  the  ridges  and  put  the 
soil  in  receptive  shape  for  the  later  winter  or  spring 
rains,  cultivating  being  done  later  to  retain  moisture  until 
the  frost-free  period  arrives,  when  the  same  land  will  take 
its  summer  crop  of  tender  vegetables  with  or  without 
irrigation  as  the  character  of  the  soil,  the  proposed  growth 
and  the  local  rainfall  shall  require. 

Raised  Beds. — A  more  elaborate  application  of  the  same 
principles  consists  in  the  raised  beds,  which  are  very  use- 
ful for  winter  growth  in  the  small  garden  and,  in  combina- 
tion with  irrigation  by  seepage,  as  already  described  in 
the  chapter  on  that  subject,  afford  a  means  for  applying 
water  or  escaping  from  it  as  the  conditions  at  any  time 
shall  dictate. 

Another  form  is  the  permanent,  bordered,  raised  bed 
of  the  kitchen  garden,  which  is  very  serviceable  either 
in  farm  or  village  growth  of  home  supplies  by  hand  work, 
both  in  cultivation  and  sprinkling.  This  is  the  method 
by  which  Mr.  Ira  W.  Adams,  one  of  our  most  resourceful 
vegetable  growers,  applies  the  principle  on  a  small  scale : 

"I  make  my  beds  four  feet  wide  and  any  length  desired. 
As  my  land  is  little  on  the  adobe  order,  put  on  three  or 
four  inches  of  fine  creek  sand  and  a  very  heavy  dressing 
of  thoroughly  decomposed  mixture  of  cow,  horse,  pig,  and 
hen  manure.  My  beds  are  twenty  feet  long  and  I  confine 
the  soil  in  them  by  laying  a  round  spruce  pole  on  each 
side,  said  pole  being  about  six  inches  in  diameter  at  one 
end  and  five  at  the  other ;  a  little  larger  or  smaller  will  an- 
swer. By  driving  a  small  stake  at  each  end  of  these  poles 
and  one  in  the  middle,  and  fastening  them  to  the  pole  by 
a  single  nail  in  each  stake,  a  great  saving  of  space  is 


HILLS  AND  FLAT  CULTURE.  93 

made  on  the  edges  of  the  beds,  as  without  some  protec- 
tion the  heavy  rains  wash  the  edges  of  the  beds  very 
badly. 

11 A  few  days  before  sowing  the  seed,  in  September,  I 
water  the  bed  very  thoroughly  until  the  soil  is  thoroughly 
saturated  to  the  depth  of  eight  or  ten  inches.  Leave  it 
until  it  is  in  just  the  right  condition  to  work.  Then  in- 
corporate the  sand  and  manure  into  the  bed  in  the  best 
posisble  manner  by  vigorous  use  of  a  six-tined  hoe  fork 
with  round  steel  teeth  about  one-fourth  of  an  inch  in  diam- 
eter and  eight  inches  long.  This  thorough  work,  with  the 
addition  of  the  sand  and  manure,  leaves  my  beds  about 
eight  inches  above  the  general  level  of  the  land,  and  be- 
tween each  bed  I  leave  a  walk  fourteen  inches  wide. 

1 '  Some  may  say  it  is  a  great  deal  of  trouble  to  prepare 
such  beds.  Granted;  but  when  the  beds  are  once  care- 
fully made  they  are  fit  for  immediate  use  at  all  seasons 
of  the  year,  and  for  many  years  to  come,  not  only  for 
onions,  but  for  early  lettuce,  radishes,  turnips,  table  beets, 
dwarf  peas,  etc.,  that  require  a  light,  rich,  and  well- 
drained  soil.  An  application  of  a  little  liquid  hen  ma- 
nure occasionally  is  very  beneficial,  and  is  all  the  fertil- 
izing the  beds  will  need  for  many  years." 

This  shows  small-scale,  intensive  work.  With  such 
beds  it  is  possible  to  have  vegetables  in  edible  condition, 
before  it  would  be  wise  to  sow  seeds  of  the  same  kinds 
in  open  ground  in  the  same  locality. 

Hilling. — Hilling  of  plants  to  afford  soil-room  for 
growth  started  from  shallow  planting  is  another  means 
of  attaining  drainage  and  soil  warmth  during  the  winter 
season.  It  is  the  ridge  principle  applied  in  spots  and  with 
vastly  greater  labor.  If  one  has  a  fancy  for  it  he  can  in- 
dulge in  it  in  a  hand-made  winter  garden,  but  otherwise 
there  is  nothing  to  be  said  for  it. 

Flat  Culture. — All  references  to  systems  which  lift  the 
plant-bed  above  the  common  surface  should  be  accompan- 
ied by  the  clear  declaration,  that  except  as  associated  with 


94  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES. 

the  distribution  of  irrigation  water,  they  are  a  delusion 
and  a  snare  if  carried  into  summer  work.  The  very  re- 
lease of  water  which  fits  them  for  winter  use  unfits  them 
for  the  dry  summer.  Level  culture  is  the  broad  basis 
upon  which  summer  conservation  of  moisture  rests.  The 
plant  root  should  neither  be  lifted  into  the  air  nor  should 
the  soil  be  opened  so  that  the  air  is  allowed  to  freely  de- 
scend to  the  plant  roots.  Soil  and  air  assume  proper 
relations  when  the  culture  is  flat  and  fine  and  sufficiently 
deep. 

Tillage  to  Release  Excessive  Moisture. — The  occasion 
for  this  course,  except  in  stated  winter  practice  already 
described,  rarely  occurs  in  California  except  on  lowlands 
in  regions  of  ample  rainfall,  though  sometimes  a  large 
precipitation  in  a  short  time  may  too  long  delay  planting 
until  the  surplus  is  disposed  of.  Plowing  with  rather  a 
long  slope  of  moldboard,  which  turns  furrows  without 
crushing  and  laps  them  well,  leaves  air  spaces  at  the  bot- 
tom of  the  furrow-slice  and  aids  greatly  in  drying  the 
soil.  Sub-soiling  also  allows  water  to  percolate  and  air 
to  enter  freely.  These  are,  however,  heroic  treatments  and 
if  employed  late  in  the  rainy  season  are  apt  to  give  the 
lower  layers  of  the  soil  opportunity  to  dry  beyond  desir- 
able moisture  retention.  If  only  a  slight  surface  drying 
is  necessary  a  narrow-toothed  harrow  or  cutting  discs  with 
slight  lateral  pressure  will  accomplish  it. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 
FERTILIZATION. 

In  the  chapter  on  soils  there  has  been  given  a  glance  at 
the  leading  characteristics  of  California  soils,  including 
their  endowment  of  available  plant  food.  This  natural 
fertility  is  the  explanation  of  the  fact  that  in  this  State 
up  to  this  time  the  question  of  fertilization  has  been  of 
minor  importance.  The  securing  and  husbanding  of  ade- 
quate moisture  constitute  the  key  by  which  native  fertility 
is  unlocked  and  so  long  as  this  resource  permits  the  gath- 
ering of  large  crops  of  superior  vegetable  products  with- 
out expenditure  for  fertilizers  it  is  obvious  that  we  shall 
have  the  art  of  fertilizing  under  our  climatic  conditions 
still  to  learn.  We  are  already  undertaking  large  expendi- 
ture for  fertilizers  for  fruit  trees,  especially  those  of  the 
citrus  family,  and  the  world-wide  problem  of  economical 
plant-feeding  will  reach  all  our  producers,  sooner  or 
later,  as  each  has  the  hungrier  plants  or  the  thinner  soils. 
The  old  conception  of  the  pioneers  that  California  cli- 
mate and  soil  had  some  sort  of  beneficent  inter-action 
which  insured  perpetual  fertility  was  merely  a  phase  of 
the  perpetual  motion  vagary,  as  applied  to  agriculture. 
It  was  a  sort  of  reaction  from  the  older  view  that  Cali- 
fornia soil  would  produce  nothing  but  winter  pasture. 
Of  course,  all  these  early  notions  have  passed  away.  It  is 
only  a  question  of  time  when  soil-building  will  be  a  regu- 
lar California  effort,  but  on  some  lands,  and  for  some 
crops,  it  may  be  a  very  long  time  before  the  problem  will 
be  pressing. 

And  yet  it  would  not  be  truthful  to  convey  the  impres- 
sion that  fertilization  is  not  undertaken  at  the  present 
time.  There  has  been  great  progress  during  recent  years 


96  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES. 

in  the  utilization  of  natural  manurial  supplies  which  were 
formerly  allowed  to  go  to  waste.  The  demand  from  or- 
chardists  has  induced  systematic  search  and  traffic,  and 
old  accumulations  from  the  stock  farming  of  our  first 
thirty  or  forty  years  are  being  put  to  good  use,  together 
with  a  considerable  amount  of  artificial  fertilizers.  There 
is  also  a  constant  demand  for  the  wastes  of  our  towns  and 
cities  for  gardening  purposes.  Our  market  gardeners 
have  zeal  for  collecting  the  cleanings  of  city  stables  and 
our  amateur  gardeners,  both  in  villages  and  on  farms, 
make,  as  a  rule,  good  use  of  the  animal  wastes  which  are 
available.  They  understand  the  advantage  of  intensive 
work  and  of  bringing  small  areas  up  to  maximum  produc- 
tion, and  they  know  that  to  raise  large  garden  crops  one 
must  apply  manure  without  stint,  but  our  field  production 
of  staple  vegetables  is  not  intensive  as  yet,  except  as  in- 
tensity is  included  in  natural  fertility.  This  being  the 
case,  the  writer  does  not  undertake  prophecy.  In  a  few 
years  the  progressive  work  which  is  now  under  way,  es- 
pecially in  southern  California,  in  trial  of  artificial  man- 
ures for  vegetable  growing,  will  furnish  object  lessons 
for  general  guidance.  Present  purposes  will  be  best 
served  by  offering  suggestions  as  to  the  ways  to  turn  natu- 
ral supplies  to  best  account. 

Comparative  Value  of  Animal  Manures. — The  excre- 
ments of  different  animals  serve  somewhat  different  pur- 
poses in  garden  practice  because  they  act  more  or  less 
quickly  and  are  more  or  less  stimulating  to  the  plant. 
There  is  also  warrant  in  carrying  with  the  word  stimu- 
lating the  inference  that  in  feeding  plants,  as  in  treating 
animals,  that  which  is  most  stimulating  must  be  used 
with  the  greatest  caution.  Both  caution  and  economy 
prescribe  that  the  manure  which  has  the  highest  content 
of  plant  food  should  be  used  in  less  amount  and  more  care- 
fully distributed  through  the  area  of  soil  which  the  roots 
of  the  plant  are  expected  to  traverse. 

The  excrements  of  animals  depend  in  composition  upon 


COMPOSITION  OF  MANURES.  97 

the  abundance  and  richness  of  the  food  furnished  them. 
The  following  table  is  compiled  from  experiments  and 
analyses  made  at  Cornell  University,  and  there  is  no  doubt 
that  the  stock  was  well  fed. 

COMPOSITION  AND  VALUE  OF  FRESH  MANURE 
FROM  DIFFERENT  ANIMALS. 
Phosphoric 


Animals. 

Nitrogen, 
Per  cent. 

Potash, 
Per  cent. 

Acid, 
Per  cent. 

Value  per 
Ton. 

Cows   .  . 

.  .   0.50 

0.29 

0.45 

2.38 

Horses  . 

.  .   0.47 

0.94 

0.39 

2.79 

Sheep  .. 
Swine    . 

.  .   1.00 
.  .   0.83 

1.21 
0.61 

0.08 
0.04 

4.19 
3.18 

Hens    .  . 

.   1.10 

0.29 

0.47 

4.22 

The  value  is  figured  at  the  price  agreed  upon  by  east- 
ern chemists  as  fair  value  for  the  ingredients  as  used  in 
artificial  fertilizers. 

Value  per  ton  is  also  conditioned  upon  the  percentage 
of  water  in  the  manure.  Hen  manure  has  much  less  water 
even  in  a  fresh  state  than  that  of  cattle,  and  air-dried  hen 
manure,  free  from  earth,  etc.,  is  sometimes  worth  as  much 
as  $10  per  ton,  providing  the  hens  are  well  fed.  In  this 
State  air-dried  sheep  manure  in  large  corral  deposits  in 
Fresno  has  been  found  by  analyses  at  the  University  of 
California  to  have  this  composition  and  value : 

Per  cent. 

Nitrogen 2.32 

Potash 2.90 

Phosphoric  Acid 2.88 

The  material  had  only  twenty-eight  per  cent  of  water 
and  its  value  calculated  at  the  agreed  price  of  its  ingre- 
dients is  $10.95  per  ton.  Even  when  calculated  at  the 
same  per  cent  of  water,  the  California  corral  deposit  has 
much  higher  value  than  the  eastern  sheep  manure. 

Garden  Use  of  Concentrated  Manures. — Hen,  sheep,  and 
hog  manure  are  very  much  richer,  as  shown,  than  the 


98  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES. 

same  bulk  of  cow  or  horse  manure.  The  safest  way  to 
use  them  is  by  composting  with  other  materials,  as  will 
be  described  presently,  but  if  it  is  desirable  to  use  them 
alone,  care  should  be  taken  in  the  distribution,  as  already 
stated.  This  can  be  assured  by  thoroughly  mixing  these 
manures  with  at  least  equal  bulks  of  fine  earth,  when  they 
will  soon  be  reduced  into  a  fairly  dry  and  powdery  state 
in  which  they  may  be  readily  spread  broadcast  on  the 
land,  or  be  sown  by  the  drill,  and  be  found  a  useful  gen- 
eral manure  for  every  kind  of  garden  produce. 

Deterioration  of  Manures. — There  are  two  ways  by 
which  animal  manures  lose  valuable  constituents :  first,  the 
escape  of  nitrogen  by  fermentation  which  sets  free  this 
element  chiefly  in  the  form  of  ammonia :  second,  the  leach- 
ing out  of  soluble  matters  by  exposure  of  the  mass  to 
copious  rains.  Both  of  these  losses  are  practically  pre- 
vented by  drying  of  the  manure.  The  local  demonstra- 
tion of  this  general  truth  is  seen  in  the  analysis  just  given 
of  sheep  manure  which  has  passed  through  many  years  of 
exposure  to  the  weather  in  an  arid  interior  valley  of  Cali- 
fornia and  still  retains  so  much  fertilizing  value.  Another 
means  by  which  fermentation  is  reduced  and  controlled 
is  by  compacting  the  mass  so  that  free  access  of  air  and 
free  passage  of  water  are  prevented.  This  compacting 
is  currently  accomplished  by  the  tread  of  the  sheep  con- 
fined by  night  in  large  numbers  in  small  inclosure.  The 
prevention  of  leaching  in  this  case  is  also  due  to  the  fact 
that  the  local  rainfall  never  reaches  in  any  short  period 
volume  enough  to  accomplish  percolation  through  a  thick 
layer  of  manure  to  the  soil.  We  have  then  in  the  case 
of  a  dry  interior  valley  of  California  all  the  conditions 
for  the  preservation  of  manure  which  the  progressive 
farmers  of  humid  climates  secure  by  means  of  covered 
cattle  yards,  covered  pits,  manure  sheds  and  other  devices. 

And  yet  manure  will  go  to  destruction  in  California  as 
fast  as  elsewhere  unless  the  conditions  mentioned  are  se- 
cured, Loose  piles  of  manure,  except  in  the  most  arid 


GARDEN  COMPOST.  99 

localities,  have,  or  subsequently  receive,  moisture  enough 
to  start  active  fermentation  and  will  "fire-fang"  and  be- 
come nearly  worthless  in  a  very  short  time  during  our 
hot  summer.  Such  loose  piles  thrown  to  the  weather  in 
the  rainy  season  will  be  largely  leached  of  their  soluble 
matters  wherever  rainfall  is  considerable.  Probably  the 
easiest  way  to  preserve  manure  in  California  is  to  allow 
it  to  lie  in  the  corral  during  the  summer,  for  there  it  is 
free  from  leaching  rain,  usually  from  June  to  November, 
and  all  its  coarse  straw,  etc.,  dry  and  brittle,  is  reduced 
almost  to  powder  by  the  tramp  of  the  animals.  If  then 
this  fine  material  is  scraped  up,  spread  and  plowed  in  at 
the  beginning  of  the  rainy  season  it  will  readily  ferment 
in  the  soil  and  all  its  value  be  retained,  if  the  applica- 
tion is  made  to  a  heavy  soil  under  a  good  rainfall.  The 
winter-made  manure  should  not  be  allowed  to  lie  in  the 
corral  to  be  leached  by  drenching  rain.  It  should  be  gath- 
ered frequently  and  applied  fresh  to  the  land  so  that  the 
leachings  may  be  plowed  in  while  there  is  still  moisture 
enough  in  the  soil  to  make  the  process  safe  and  efficacious. 
This  easiest  way  to  handle  animal  manures  in  California 
may  do  for  ordinary  farm  crops,  if  the  soil  is  heavy  enough 
and  moist  enough  to  receive  unfermented  manure  without 
danger  to  the  crop  from  loss  of  moisture,  but  it  is  not  the 
best  way  to  handle  manure,  either  for  field  or  for  gardens. 
Manure  for  garden  use  should  be  most  carefully  treated  to 
save  all  its  richness  and  to  render  its  coarse  materials 
more  readily  available  in  soil-forming  processes.  In  short, 
instead  of  preventing  fermentation,  manure  for  garden 
purposes  should  be  put  through  a  carefully  controlled  fer- 
mentation which  is  involved  in  composting. 

Compost  for  Garden  Purposes. — The  term  compost  sig- 
nifies a  mixture  of  manurial  substances  and  for  garden 
use  there  should  be  collection  constantly  made  of  the  void- 
ing of  the  animals,  trimmings  of  vegetables,  the  refuse  of 
plants  as  the  ground  is  cleared,  the  house  wastes,  and,  in 
fact,  everything  of  an  organic  nature  which  will  yield  to 


100  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES. 

decay,  and  any  available  mineral  wastes,  like  ashes,  which 
contains  plant  food.  If  all  these  are  added  to  the  animal 
manure  and  treatment  adopted  which  will  promote  the 
proper  fermentation  in  it,  the  manure  will  assist  in  re- 
ducing the  other  materials  to  proper  condition  for  garden 
use. 

The  conditions  for  such  fermentation  are  adequate  mois- 
ture accompanied  with  stirring  and  aeration  enough  to 
distribute  the  action  evenly  throughout  the  mass  and  to 
bring  all  the  materials  under  its  influence.  There  are  nu- 
merous ways  of  accomplishing  this,  and  each  operator  will 
probably  have  his  own  notions  about  their  relative  ease 
and  cheapness. 

Manure  Tanks. — These  are  cemented,  water-tight,  exca- 
vations of  various  sizes.  A  Napa  county  farmer  built  one 
a  few  years  ago  which  cost  him  nearly  two  hundred  dol- 
lars, with  all  its  appurtenances.  It  was  thirteen  by  twenty 
and  one-half  feet  in  size,  about  six  feet  deep  and  exceed- 
ingly well  built.  The  floor  has  a  slant,  inclining  to  a 
well  at  one  end,  where,  with  the  aid  of  a  wooden  pump, 
the  juices  as  they  settle  are  raised  to  the  top  and  poured 
over  the  mass  to  again  percolate  through  it.  It  is  quite 
a  question  whether  it  is  worth  while  making  such  invest- 
ment. Loss  of  liquid  manure  by  leaching  is  prevented,  but 
on  the  other  hand  it  is  apt  to  accumulate  in  such  quanti- 
ties in  the  pit  that,  unless  the  pit  is  roofed,  the  addition 
of  the  rainfall  will  result  in  the  submergence  of -all  the 
manure  and  this  excludes  the  air  and  prevents  the  proper 
fermentation.  The  result  is  that  there  is  great  cost  in 
excavating  the  water-logged  material  from  the  tank,  a 
large  amount  of  heavy  and  disagreeable  shoveling  and  the 
manure  not  in  the  best  condition  after  all. 

Manure  Pits. — Manure  pits  if  excavated  with  one  slop- 
ing side  so  carts  can  be  readily  backed  in  for  filling,  are 
cheaper  than  tanks  and  if  they  have  a  clay  sub-soil  for  a 
floor  or  can  be  puddled  with  clay  on  the  concave  bottom 
they  will  hold  most  of  the  liquid,  unless  water  flushing  of 


MANURE  PITS  AND  TANKS.  101 

the  stable  is  indulged  in.  A  large  grower  of  beets  and 
other  roots  for  stock-feeding  in  San  Mateo  county  has 
for  a  number  of  years  used  this  arrangement  with  satisfac- 
tion: 

"I  have  a  manure  pit  large  enough  to  hold  all  the  ma- 
nure made  in  a  year.  A  hole  about  three  feet  deep  is  dug 
out  of  the  side  of  a  hill.  A  sloping  platform,  up  which  all 
the  manure  is  wheeled,  raises  it  about  four  feet  above 
the  ground  on  the  upper  side,  which  gives  a  drop  for  the 
manure  of  about  seven  feet.  When  filled  up  to  a  level 
with  the  end  of  the  platform,  loose  planks  are  laid  as  re- 
•quired  on  top  of  the  manure.  Thus  by  continually  wheel- 
ing each  day's  manure  over  the  older  manure,  its  solidity 
is  insured,  and  all  the  manure  made  on  the  farm  has  to 
go  up  the  said  platform.  After  the  cow  barn  is  cleaned  out, 
the  lightest  of  the  manure  from  the  horse  stable,  bull 
stalls,  etc.,  or  any  other  absorbent,  is  put  behind  the  cows, 
taking  up  fluids,  and  thus  insuring  a  regular  quality 
throughout  the  heap.  Another  important  item  added  to 
the  general  heap  is  the  hen  manure  and  ashes,  the  latter 
being  kept  in  a  large  tin,  which,  when  full,  is  emptied 
into  the  fowl-house,  and  all  goes  in  the  manure  heap  to- 
gether." 

This  use  of  absorbents  prevents  accumulation  of  exces- 
sive liquid  and  there  is  consequently  little  loss  by  leach- 
ing. The  compacting  of  the  mass  prevents  too  free  access 
of  the  air  and  fit  conditions  for  slowly  breaking  down  the 
coarse  manure  are  assured. 

Composting  in  Piles. — The  method  usually  followed  by 
market  gardeners  seems  on  the  whole  the  most  convenient 
and  best  for  this  climate,  where  the  winter  rainfall  is, 
as  a  rule,  not  so  heavy  as  to  occasion  much  leaching,  if 
the  pile  is  of  several  feet  in  depth.  It  involves  some  shov- 
eling, but  it  facilitates  rapid  curing  of  the  manure  and 
brings  it  into  excellent  condition  for  garden  use.  Stack 
the  fresh  manure  in  a  pile  several  feet  high.  Then  give  it 
a  thorough  wetting  from  a  hose  and  allow  it  to  decompose 


102  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES. 

for  a  few  weeks.  Then  chop  it  down,  mix  thoroughly  and 
stack  it  again;  then  wet  it  well  once  more,  and  after  a 
few  weeks  it  will  be  ready  to  put  upon  the  field.  This 
process  of  composting  destroys  all  weed  and  other  seeds, 
prevents  the  manure  from  burning,  as  well  as  the  escape 
mixed  when  stacking  it.  Compost  thus  made  is  suitable 
for  the  finest  garden,  at  a  moderate  expense,  and  the  work 
necessary  will  pay  a  larger  profit  than  any  other  farm 
labor.  Watching  the  moisture  and  using  the  hose,  when 
the  rainfall  is  not  adequate,  and  thorough  stirring  and 
aeration  of  the  mass,  are  the  essentials  of  the  process. 

The  manner  in  which  Mr.  Ira  W.  Adams  handles  ma-, 
nures  involves  correct  practice : 

"Clean  up  all  the  manure  on  hand  just  before  the  fall 
rains,  putting  the  same  on  the  land,  and  either  cultivate 
it  in  or  plow  it  under.  What  manure  accumulates  during 
the  winter,  pile  in  a  snug  heap  some  five  or  six  feet  in 
depth,  and  throw  it  over  some  three  or  four  times  during 
the  winter  to  keep  it  from  burning,  as  well  as  to  thor- 
oughly mix  it  and  thereby  hasten  decomposition.  Put 
horse,  cow,  hog,  chicken,  and  every  other  kind  of  manure 
that  can  be  had,  all  together. 

"Never  burn  anything  that  will  rot,  but  haul  to  the 
pile,  cornstalks,  roots,  and  all  squash,  melon,  tomato,  and 
potato  vines,  etc.,  as  well  as  weeds  of  every  description, 
in  fact,  anything  and  everything  that  will  decay  and  make 
vegetable  matter.  Use  fresh  horse  manure  mostly  to  has- 
ten the  decomposition  of  said  vines,  weeds,  etc.,  alternat- 
ing as  the  heap  is  made.  By  so  doing  there  will  not 
be  a  weed  seed  left  with  vitality  enough  to  germinate. 

"It  is  well  to  have  manure  piles  under  a  roof  to  avoid 
leaching  during  the  longest  and  most  excessive  rains,  but 
so  situated  that  the  rain  falling  on  the  barn  can  be  easily 
conducted  to  the  piles,  giving  them  just  the  amount  of 
water  necessary  and  no  more.  After  the  rains  are  over, 
some  water  will  have  to  be  applied  from  time  to  time ;  and 
covering  with  very  fine,  dry  earth  will  keep  the  pile  from 


LIQUID  MANURE.  103 

drying  out  during  the  long,  hot  summer,  as  well  as  cause  it 
to  retain  most  of  the  ammonia,  etc.,  that  would  otherwise 
have  evaporated  and  escaped.  Late  in  the  fall  it  will  be 
found  entirely  rotten,  cutting  like  old  cheese." 

Liquid  Manure. — Liquid  extract  of  animal  manures  is 
of  great  efficacy  in  vegetable  growing  if  carefully  used. 
It  is  made  by  filling  a  barrel  with  manure,  pouring  water 
on  above  and  drawing  it  out  below  as  it  leaches  through 
the  mass.  Another  way  is  to  have  a  barrel  with  water  in 
a  handy  place  and  throw  into  it  enough  manure  to  make 
an  extract  of  the  right  strength.  No  matter  how  it  is 
done  care  must  be  taken  not  to  have  the  extract  too  strong. 
This  can  generally  be  told  by  the  color,  which  should  not 
be  darker  than  tea  of  medium  strength.  The  quality  to 
apply  in  the  hot-bed  or  the  open  ground  must  be  learned 
by  experience.  Enough  to  produce  generous  and  still  vig- 
orous growth  is  the  rule.  With  plants  to  bear  fruit  like 
tomatoes  much  less  stimulant  can  be  used  than  with  plants 
for  foliage,  for  the  stimulant  always  acts  away  from  fruit- 
ing and  toward  leaf  and  stem  extension. 

Absorbents. — As  has  already  been  intimated,  the  free 
use  of  absorbents  is  very  desirable  both  for  valuable  li- 
quids, likely  to  leach  away,  and  for  gases  which  are  prone 
to  fly  off.  Probably  the  best  absorbent  for  both  purposes 
is  ground  gypsum,  which  is  now  very  cheaply  furnished 
from  local  sources  in  several  parts  of  the  State.  It  adds 
value  of  its  own  in  addition  to  its  absorbent  properties. 
A  very  abundant  material  in  an  arid  country  is  road  dust. 
It,  too,  will  take  up  both  liquids  and  gases.  In  village 
gardens  with  paved  streets  and  well-watered  soil,  sifted 
coal  ashes  act  well  in  the  hen-house  and  on  the  manure 
pile,  and  the  cinders  which  are  sifted  out  are  a  good  foun- 
dation for  permanent  garden  walks.  The  free  use  of  the 
fine  coal  ashes  for  years  kept  the  writer's  fowls  without 
a  case  of  swell-head,  rid  the  hen-house  of  all  odor,  and  fur- 
nished many  wagon  loads  of  home-made  fertilizer  which 
is  perfectly  safe  to  use  freely  as  the  hen  manure  is  dif- 


104  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES. 

fused  through  quite  a  bulk  of  material.  The  effect  of 
large  use  of  these  sifted  coal  ashes  on  an  adobe  garden 
has  well-nigh  taken  the  hatefulness  out  of  it  and  made  it 
into  a  loam  delightful  to  put  tools  into. 

Manure  as  a  Mulch. — Market  gardeners  operating  with 
heavy  soils  use  immense  quantities  of  barn-yard  manure 
both  composted  with  garden  wastes  and  as  fresh  manure. 
The  latter  is  largely  used  as  a  mulch  or  top  dressing  during 
the  rainy  season  to  prevent  heavy  rain  from  compacting 
the  soil  around  the  young  plants  and  to  get  the  richness 
of  the  manure  by  leaching.  They  use  it  in  summer  also 
to  prevent  surface  evaporation  and  to  prevent  compacting 
the  surface  when  the  water  is  hand-thrown  with  scoop  or 
pan  from 'the  ditches  between  the  raised  beds.  This  is 
to  help  small  plants  with  their  rooting;  afterwards  they 
take  water  by  percolation  from  the  ditch.  The  free  sur- 
face use  of  fresh  coarse  manure,  to  be  afterwards  forked 
in,  is  safe  on  heavy  clay,  which  the  gardener  is  endeavor- 
ing to  lighten  up,  but  if  coarse  manure  is  used  as  a  mulch 
on  light  sandy  soil,  it  should  be  raked  up  and  taken  to 
the  compost  heap,  as  only  thoroughly  decomposed  manure 
should  be  worked  into  such  soil. 

Wood  Ashes. — Coal  ashes  have  no  estimable  manurial 
value;  their  effect  is  mechanical  just  as  is  the  effect  of 
adding  sand  to  clay,  but  wood  ashes  as  well  as  plant  ashes 
of  all  kinds,  is  intrinsically  an  excellent  fertilizer,  since 
it  contains  the  soil  ingredients  required  by  all  plants,  even 
though  in  different  proportions.  The  value  of  ash  varies 
materially  in  accordance  with  the  degree  of  heat  to  which 
it  has  been  subjected  when  made.  In  general,  the  hotter 
the  fire,  the  less  active  will  be  the  ash  as  a  fertilizer. 

The  chemical  composition  of  ashes  varies  considerably, 
according  to  the  plants,  or  parts  of  plants,  from  which  it 
has  been  derived;  the  smaller  the  wood,  or  the  more  of 
weeds  or  other  herbaceous  material  there  was  in  it,  the 
more  valuable  the  ash;  but  taking  a  broad  average,  a 
bushel  (say  forty-eight  pounds)  of  wood  ashes  would,  ac- 


ASHES  AND  BONES.  105 

cording  to  the  ordinary  valuation  of  the  ingredients,  be 
worth  about  twenty-five  cents — counting  on  an  average  of 
five  per  cent  of  potash  and  two  per  cent  of  phosphoric  acid. 
In  general,  ashes  should  be  spread  broadcast  over  the  sur- 
face of  the  ground  and  allowed  to  be  washed  in  by  rains 
or  irrigation,  and  not  placed  too  near  the  plant.  If  plowed 
in  shallow  with  stubble  or  weeds,  the  latter  decompose 
very  quickly,  and  the  effect  of  both  is  thus  improved 
and  quickened. 

It  may  be  said  in  general  terms,  that  the  ashes  of  wood 
and  of  land  plants  of  every  kind  are  of  value  for  manure 
on  every  kind  of  soil  which  has  been  reduced  by  crop- 
ping; but  the  greatest  benefit  is  shown  upon  sandy  and 
porous  soils.  On  these  "light  soils"  crops  of  every  kind, 
but  especially  root  crops  and  corn,  will  be  benefited  by  a 
dressing  of  wood  ashes.  Thirty  to  fifty  bushels  to  the  acre 
of  fresh  ashes  will  be  a  full  dressing,  and  three  or  four 
times  that  amount  of  leached  ashes  may  be  applied  with 
permanent  benefit. 

Bone  Manures. — Bones  as  they  commonly  occur  in  na- 
ture contain  plant  food  worth  about  $30  per  ton.  The  best 
treatment  for  bones  is  to  crush  them  if  it  can  be  handily 
done,  and  then  put  them  through  the  fermentation  of  the 
compost  heap,  with  fresh  manure  and  wood  ashes.  It 
takes  from  three  to  six  months  to  reduce  them.  The  bones 
which  do  not  break  down  under  this  treatment  can  best 
be  buried  deeply  in  the  orchard  to  await  slow  disintegra- 
tion by  the  tree  roots. 


CHAPTER  Villa. 
GARDEN  PROTECTION. 

There  are  three  main  lines  of  protection  to  which  the 
vegetable  grower  may  find  himself  compelled  to  give  at- 
tention, and  he  may  sometimes  be  so  beset  by  ills  that  he 
will  cry  in  despair  that  all  forces  of  earth,  air  and  sky 
are  arrayed  against  his  enterprise.  Fortunately,  however, 
there  is  nothing  in  the  situation,  usually,  to  appall  one 
who  is  energetic  and  prompt  and  eager  for  success,  and  an 
effort  will  be  made  to  suggest  expedients  and  methods 
which  will  assist  in  repelling  various  destroying  agencies. 
The  three  classes  of  intruders  to  which  attention  will  be 
called  are  these :  unfavorable  atmospheric  conditions ;  in- 
jurious insects  and  fungi;  injurious  animals. 

PROTECTION  AGAINST  WINDS  AND  FROST. 

Protection  against  harsh  winds  has  already  been  in- 
cidentally mentioned  from  time  to  time.  There  are  very 
few  places  where  a  good  windbreak  will  not  be  of  decided 
advantage,  and  if  the  garden  ground  cannot  be  selected 
so  as  to  enjoy  the  protection  of  trees  and  buildings  already 
in  place,  special  planting  or  construction  should  be  under- 
taken. A  good  shelter  belt  of  trees,  preferably  of  ever- 
green foliage  so  placed  as  to  break  the  cold  winds  from 
the  direction  prevailing  in  the  locality,  will  be  found  of 
immense  advantage.  Where  such  protection  is  not  prac- 
ticable, a  high  fence,  even  if  not  closely  boarded,  will  af- 
ford some  protection  to  a  much  greater  width  of  ground 
than  one  might  think  at  first. 

Protection  against  frost,  effective  against  a  drop  of 
several  degrees  below  the  freezing  point,  is  also  possible 
by  the  use  of  a  smoke  smudge.  Most  effective  fires  are 


CLASSES  OP  INSECTS.  107 

those  which  yield  volumes  of  steam  as  well  as  smoke,  so 
that  masses  of  wet  straw  or  rubbish,  placed  over  dry  stuff 
enough  to  maintain  combustion,  are  the  best  material. 
Running  or  standing  water  close  to  the  plants  will  also 
prevent  frost  effect,  providing  the  temperature  does  not 
sink  very  far  below  the  freezing  point,  nor  remain  there 
too  long.  Under  such  conditions,  covers  of  paper,  bur- 
laps, etc.,  also  serve  a  good  temporary  purpose.  More  ef- 
fective protection  is  described  in  the  chapter  on  propaga- 
tion. 

INJURIOUS  INSECTS  AND  FUNGI. 

It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  attacks  of  these 
evils  are  in  many  cases  conditioned  upon  weakness  and  un- 
thrift  to  the  plant,  and  the  danger  from  both  insects  and 
blights  is  reduced  by  keeping  the  plants  in  most  active  and 
vigorous  growth.  Lack  of  cultivation,  lack  of  plant  food 
in  the  soil,  and  lock  of  moisture,  are  invitations  to  these 
invaders.  The  natural  resistance  of  the  plant  is  broken 
down,  and  it  becomes  a  prey  to  its  enemies.  But  the  best 
growing  conditions  do  not  render  plants  immune  against 
all  pests.  Some  are  so  aggressive  that  the  grower  has  to 
fight  to  save  his  crop,  and  to  fight  hard  sometimes. 

Fortunately,  warfare  against  insects  has  been  greatly 
simplified  during  recent  years  by  the  use  of  remedies  of 
comparatively  recent  application.  There  are  two  chief 
divisions  of  insects :  -first,  biting  insects,  which  are  recog- 
nized by  the  gardener  by  the  fact  that  they  make  holes 
in  the  foliage ;  second,  sucking  insects,  which  make  no  holes 
but  pierce  and  extract  the  sap  in  such  a  way  that  the  leaf 
wilts,  loses  color  and  perhaps  dies  without  losing  any  ap- 
preciable part  of  its  surface.  Each  of  these  classes  has 
its  own  remedy. 

Remedies  for  Biting  Insects. — Insects  which  consume  the 
leaf  surface  are  destroyed  by  poison,  and  this  can  be 
used  in  such  minute  quantities  as  not  to  destroy  the  fo- 
liage nor  render  it  dangerous  for  food  purposes  unless 
the  plant  is  nearly  in  condition  for  eating,  and  then,  of 


108  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES. 

course,  poison  on  the  foliage  is  very  dangerous  if  the  fo- 
liage is  the  edible  part.  If  the  edible  part  is  the  root  or 
tuber,  poison  on  the  foliage  is  not  dangerous.  The  most 
widely  used  poison  is  Paris  green,  either  used  as  a  powder 
mixed  with  twenty  times  its  bulk  of  flour,  and  dusted  on 
the  plant,  or  applied  as  a  spray  or  sprinkle,  using  one 
ounce  of  Paris  green  to  ten  or  twelve  gallons  of  water. 
For  spraying  to  kill  these  pests,  lead  arsenate  has  recently 
been  largely  substituted  for  Paris  green.  It  is  less  de- 
structive to  foliage  and  can  therefore  be  used  in  greater 
strength.  This  will  kill  all  forms  of  insects,  large  and 
small,  which  make  holes  in  leaves.  It  only  becomes  in- 
effective when  insects  occur  in  such  vast  multitudes  that 
the  plant  is  all  consumed  before  all  the  insects  are  supplied 
with  the  poison.  Fortunately,  this  does  not  often  occur 
in  garden  practice. 

For  larvae  which  come  from  the  ground  and  destroy  the 
plant  by  cutting  the  stem,  the  Paris  green,  either  dust  or 
sprinkle,  may  be  placed  on  tender  leaves  or  sprigs  of  al- 
falfa which  are  placed  on  the  ground  beside  the  plant  to 
be  protected.  The  most  injurious  insects  of  this  kind  are 
called  "cutworms."  It  is  also  often  satisfactory  to  use 
the  poison  in  this  way:  Take  thirty  pounds  bran,  two 
pints  molasses,  one  pound  Paris  green;  put  the  molasses 
into  six  quarts  of  hot  water,  add  the  bran  and  Paris 
green,  mixing  thoroughly  until  the  water  is  tinged  with 
green.  Place  a  spoonful  of  this  near  the  plants  and  wher- 
ever the  worms  are,  not  getting  it  too  near  the  stalk.  If 
a- new  lot  of  worms  hatch,  the  dose  will  have  to  be  re- 
peated. 

The  same  preparation  is  also  very  effective  for  grasshop- 
pers in  vineyards,  but  there  is  little  chance  of  coping  with 
grasshoppers  or  army  worms  in  the  garden  by  poisoning. 
Unless  they  can  be  checked  by  walls  of  fire  or  streams  of 
running  water  around  the  garden,  the  gardener  has  little 
to  do  but  to  replant  as  soon  as  they  have  passed  on  their 
way. 


INSECTICIDES.  109 

When  biting  insects  attack  plants  which  it  is  not 
thought  safe  to  poison,  the  use  of  a  powder  of  air-slaked 
lime  or  of  dry  wood  ashes  is  often  effective  in  discouraging 
their  attacks.  Another  repellant  which  sometimes  works 
like  a  charm  is  kerosene  powder,  made  by  stirring  a  table- 
spoonful  of  the  oil  to  a  quart  of  pulverized  gypsum,  or  air- 
slaked  lime,  or  even  fine  road  dust.  Scatter  it  on  and 
around  the  plant. 

Plants  may  also  be  often  rendered  unattractive  to  in- 
sects by  free  sprinkling  with  tar  water.  Take  a  barrel 
with  a  few  gallons  of  gas  tar  in  it,  pour  water  on  the  tar, 
and  have  it  always  ready  when  needed.  When  the  insects 
appear  give  them  a  liberal  dose  of  the  tar  water  from  a 
garden  sprinkler  or  otherwise ;  when  the  rain  washes  it 
off  the  leaves,  or  the  pests  return  repeat  the  dose. 

There  are  other  biting  and  boring  insects  which  destroy 
plants  by  their  injuries  to  the  roots.  Wireworms  are  a 
conspicuous  group  of  these  destroyers.  All  underground 
pests  are  naturally  difficult  of  treatment  and  often  in  field 
practice  they  cannot  be  economically  destroyed  or  discour- 
aged. In  garden  practice,  however,  the  use  of  soot  or  ni- 
trate of  soda,  in  very  small  quantities,  or  of  tobacco  dust, 
the  extract  of  which  is  carried  down  by  water  to  the  dis- 
comfiture of  the  pest,  is  often  effective  and  profitable. 

Another  group  of  biting  pests  though  not  strictly  in- 
sects, are  slugs  and  snails.  They  can  be  poisoned  by  the 
use  of  poisoned  leaves  laid  on  the  ground,  or  they  can  be 
trapped  either  with  leaves  or  pieces  of  board  or  little  piles 
of  wheat  bran.  Early  in  the  morning  the  slugs  will  be 
found  in  large  numbers  under  the  leaves  or  boards,  or 
collected  in  the  bran,  and  can  easily  be  gathered  up  for 
breakfast  in  the  poultry  yard.  Mother  hens  in  portable 
coops  with  the  young  chicks  or  ducks  running  among  the 
plants,  are  a  very  good  solution  of  the  slug  question  on  a 
small  scale.  Myriads  of  slugs  in  the  garden  are  often  due 
to  excessive  irrigation.  If  the  surface  is  finely  worked  up 


110  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES. 

and  allowed  to  dry  it  is  very  discouraging  to  slugs  and  is 
otherwise  promotive  of  plant  growth. 

Remedies  for  Sucking  Insects. — These  are  pests  both 
large  and  small  which  bring  distress  to  plants  without 
visibly  consuming  their  substance,  as  has  already  been  de- 
scribed. They  are  not  affected  by  poison  on  the  surface. 
They  must  be  killed  by  applications  which  destroy  by  con- 
tact with  the  exterior  of  the  insects.  The  universally 
approved  remedy  for  this  large  class  of  pests  is  kerosene 
emulsion.  If  properly  made  and  diluted,  it  is  harmless 
to  the  plant  and  deadly  to  the  insect.  The  formula  which 
is  most  easily  prepared  and  most  available  for  garden 
work,  is  that  devised  by  Prof.  A.  J.  Cook  of  Claremont, 
Los  Angeles  county,  as  follows : 

Common  laundry  soap ...     %  pound 

Kerosene   3       pints 

Water 4%  gallons 

Cut  up  and  dissolve  the  soap  in  six  quarts  of  boiling 
water  in  a  five-gallon  oil  can.  Eemove  from  the  fire  and 
add  the  kerosene,  stirring  vigorously  for  ten  minutes. 
This  should  make  an  emulsion  from  which  the  oil  will 
not  separate  when  cool.  It  can  be  diluted  with  water 
enough  to  fill  the  five-gallon  can,  and  is  then  ready  for 
application  with  a  garden  syringe  or  spray-pump,  and 
it  will  kill  all  insects  which  are  covered  with  a  film  of 
it.  A  fine  rose  sprinkler  can  be  used,  but  it  is  wasteful 
and  the  application  does  not  penetrate  as  wrell  as  from 
a  spray  nozzle. 

The  kerosene  emulsion  will  of  course  kill  the  insects 
for  which  poison  has  been  prescribed  and  is  available 
whenever  the  use  of  poison  is  thought  to  be  undesirable. 

Whenever  insects  do  not  yield  to  the  treatments  pro- 
posed, or  whenever  the  use  of  these  remedies  does  not 
seem  to  be  practicable,  it  is  well  for  the  grower  to  apply 
to  the  Agricultural  Department,  University  of  California, 
Berkeley,  sending  a  specimen  of  the  insect  and  of  its 
work,  if  possible.  An  answer  embodying  the  latest  in- 


MILDEWS,  MOLDS  AND  BLIGHTS.  Ill 

formation  on  the  subject  will  be  made  without  cost  to 
the  applicant.  Useful  descriptive  publications  can  also 
be  sent  in  many  cases,  and  as  information  is  thus  avail- 
able, it  is  not  necessary  to  attempt  detailed  discussion 
in  this  connection. 

INJURIOUS  FUNGI. 

Molds,  mildews,  and  blights  seem  to  be  ever  on  the 
alert  to  attack  garden  plants  whenever  suitable  condi- 
tions prevail.  Fortunately,  California  is  much  less  sub- 
ject to  these  intrusions  than  countries  with  humid  summer 
heat,  and  some  very  destructive  garden  fungi  either  do 
not  occur  here  or  occasion  very  little  trouble.  Still  it  is 
well  for  the  gardener  to  know  that  the  arrest  of  fungous 
invasion  is  a  very  much  simpler  proposition  than  it  was^ 
a  few  years  ago.  This  fact  is  due  to  the  recent  demon-  \ 
stration  of  the  efficacy  of  solutions  of  copper  salts.  The 
most  effective  preparation  is  known  as  the  Bordeaux 
mixture,  which  is  prepared  as  follows: 

Dissolve  one-half  pound  copper  sulphate  (bluestone)  in 
two  and  one-half  gallons  of  water  in  a  wooden  pail,  slake 
one-half  pound  fresh  lime  in  one-half  gallon  of  hot  water, 
stirring  and  rubbing  till  completely  slaked;  when  the 
lime  is  cool  put  the  bluestone  solution  into  a  five-gallon 
oil  can,  and  add  the  lime  by  allowing  it  to  run  through 
a  coarse  cloth  strained  to  remove  lumps  or  dirt.  Stir  in 
water  enough  to  fill  the  can  and  it  is  ready  for  use.  The 
mixture  should  not  stand  in  a  metal  vessel. 

This  makes  a  light-blue  whitewash  which  will  be  effec- 
tive as  it  slowly  diffuses  its  components  over  the  leaf  sur- 
face. In  our  dry  summer  it  remains  operative  for  a  long 
time.  It  does,  however,  make  the  plant  unhandsome, 
and  where  a  fungicide  is  desired  which  does  not  discolor 
the  leaves,  the  following  may  be  substituted  for  the  Bor- 
deaux mixture: 

Dissolve  three-fourths  ounce  of  copper  sulphate  (blue- 
stone,)  in  one  quart  of  warm  water,  and  one  ounce  of  sal 
soda  (washing  soda)  in  another  quart  of  warm  water. 


112  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES. 

When  both  are  cool,  mix  them  together  and  add  five 
ounces  of  washing  ammonia.  When  the  mixture  is  clear, 
after  standing  long  enough  to  accomplish  that,  add  cold 
water  to  make  five  gallons. 

Some  fungi  are  quite  readily  checked  by  the  use  of 
dry  sulphur,  but  when  this  is  not  effective,  the  copper 
compounds  will  be  found  satisfactory. 

In  many  cases  the  attacks  of  fungi  may  be  avoided  by 
keeping  the  plants  growing  thriftily,  or  by  choosing  vari- 
eties which  are  not  affected  by  the  diseases  to  which  other 
varieties  succumb.  Wherever  this  course  is  open  to  the 
gardener,  it  will  be  found  more  satisfactory  than  the  ap- 
plication of  remedies. 

DESTRUCTIVE  ANIMALS  AND  BIEDS. 

Against  the  larger  marauders  from  the  forest,  the  field, 
or  the  barnyard,  the  farm  garden  must  be  protected  by 
an  adequate  fence  close  enough  to  exclude  fowls  and  jack- 
rabbits.  For  the  latter  purpose,  closely  set  strands  of 
barbed  wire  are  the  cheapest  material.  The  bottom  wire 
must  be  set  low  enough  to  prevent  entrance  by  scratch- 
ing under.  Even  when  a  neater  fence  is  made  of  wire 
netting,  strands  of  barbed  wire  above  and  below  are 
often  very  useful. 

Squirrels. — Ground  squirrels  should  be  destroyed  in  the 
adjoining  fields  as  well  as  in  the  garden,  or  its  protection 
is  almost  a  hopeless  undertaking.  When  the  ground  is 
wet,  squirrels  are  very  satisfactoirly  destroyed  with  car- 
bon bisulphide,  and  this  material,  with  appliances  and 
instructions  for  its  use,  can  be  had  in  nearly  all  the  coun- 
try stores. 

In  dry  soil  the  carbon  bisulphide  is  not  so  effective, 
and  some  of  the  many  good  squirrel  poisons  must  be 
used.  The  following  has  been  shown  to  be  very  satisfac- 
tory: 

Strychnine,  one  ounce;  cyanide  of  potassium,  one  and 
one-half  ounces;  eggs,  one  dozen;  honey,  one  pint;  vine- 
gar, one  and  one-half  pints;  wheat  or  barley,  thirty 


SQUIRRELS  AND  GOPHERS.  113 

pounds.  Dissolve  the  strychnine  in  the  vinegar,  pulver- 
izing is  in  the  vinegar,  or  it  will  gather  in  a  lump.  See 
that  it  is  all  dissolved.  Dissolve  the  cyanide  of  potassium 
in  a  little  water.  Beat  the  eggs.  Mix  all  the  ingredients 
together  thoroughly  before  adding  to  the  barley.  Let  it 
stand  twenty-four  hours,  mixing  often.  Spread  to  dry 
before  using,  as  it  will  mold  if  put  away  wet.  In  wheat 
districts  use  wheat,  and  in  barley  districts  use  barley, 
as  they  eat  it  better.  Look  out  for  the  poultry  and  stock. 

Gophers. — Some  gardeners  are  very  successful  in  gopher 
trapping.  It  is  an  act  which  has  to  be  learned  by  expe- 
rience and  patient  observation.  The  following  sugges- 
tions are  made  by  an  expert  and  they  may  be  helpful  to 
beginners : 

Gophers  come  to  the  surface  in  the  night  and  generally 
close  their  holes  in  the  morning  soon  after  daybreak. 
They  frequently  emerge  again  about  noon,  and  a  third 
time  late  in  the  afternoon.  It  is  best  to  set  the  trap  in 
an  open  hole,  as  the  gopher  will  be  sure  to  return  to  fill 
it.  Still  the  holes  may  be  opened  if  the  dirt  is  still  fresh, 
with  a  good  prospect  of  the  gopher's  return.  Therefore, 
the  trapper  may  make  his  rounds  three  times  a  day,  as 
above  indicated. 

In  the  second  place,  care  should  be  exercised  in  pre- 
paring the  hole  for  the  insertion  of  the  trap.  The  trapper 
should  assure  himself  that  he  has  found  a  straight  hole 
for  a  distance  of  at  least  ten  inches,  with  no  lateral 
branches,  otherwise  the  gopher  in  pushing  out  the  dirt 
will  likely  enough  thrust  the  trap  to  one  side,  cover  it 
up  or  spring  it  without  being  exposed  to  its  grasp. 

In  the  third  place,  the  trapper  should  be  supplied  with 
at  least  two  varieties  of  traps — one  for  the  larger  gophers 
and  the  other  for  the  smaller  ones.  The  common  iron 
gopher  trap,  which  springs  downward,  is  excellent  for 
the  former,  and  the  small  wire  trap,  which  springs  up- 
ward, is  generally  successful  with  the  latter.  It  is  taken 
for  granted  that  the  size  of  the  hole  is  indicative  of  the 


114  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES. 

size  of  the  gopher.  Either  trap  should  be  inserted  nearly 
its  full  length  into  the  hole,  pressed  down  firmly,  and  a 
little  dirt  piled  at  the  outer  end  to  prevent  its  being  easily 
pushed  out.  After  the  trap  is  set  it  is  well  to  cover  the 
opening  with  some  grass  or  weeds.  Sometimes  the  holes 
require  a  little  enlarging,  but  care  should  be  taken  to 
make  the  fit  as  close  as  possible,  that  the  body  of  the 
gopher  may  be  kept  near  the  center,  and  thus  more  ex- 
posed to  the  prongs  of  the  trap. 

In  the  fourth  place,  the  trapper  should  be  supplied 
with  a  small  spade  and  a  litle  gouge-shaped  implement 
for  trimming  the  hole. 

Finally,  the  trapper  should  be  supplied  with  traps  as 
numerous  as  the  extent  of  the  pest  demands.  He  should 
not  be  discouraged  by  lack  of  success  at  first.  Persever- 
ance is  as  essential  in  this  work  as  in  any  other,  and  will 
generally  win.  We  have  in  mind  the  successful  capture 
of  a  big  gopher  after  trapping  for  him  a  week,  changing 
the  trap  two  or  three  times  a  day ;  he  had  then  destroyed 
about  fifty  hills  of  corn.  How  much  damage  he  and  his 
descendants  might  have  done  had  not  his  career  of  devas- 
tation been  interrupted,  can  only  be  estimated  by  such 
multiples  as  attach  to  the  propagation  of  that  particular 
species. 

Poisoning  is  an  easier  method  of  destroying  gophers, 
and  it  is  very  satisfactory  if  faithfully  done.  The  poison 
is  strychnine  in  crystal  form,  which  can  be  pulverized  in 
the  small  bottle  in  which  it  is  bought  by  using  the  head 
of  a  nail.  Take  out  a  very  small  amount  on  the  tip  of 
a  knife-blade  and  insert  it  into  raisins,  or  pieces  of  carrot, 
potato,  alfalfa  stems,  or  almost  any  succulent  vegetable 
substance  which  is  handy  at  the  time.  Find  where  the 
gopher  has  been  at  work  last,  and  remove  the  loose  earth 
from  the  surface,  to  find  where  it  has  come  from;  then 
dig  down  to  find  the  main  runway,  generally  from  six 
to  twelve  inches.  The  runway  being  found,  clean  out 
any  dirt  that  may  have  dropped  into  it,  and  place  the 


THE  GARDEN  MOLE.  115 

»poison  a  little  distance  from  the  opening.  Then  seal  up 
the  hole  with  a  lump  of  earth  or  sod,  being  careful  that 
none  drops  in  on  the  poison,  and  put  the  dirt  back  as 
it  was  before.  The  gopher  will  soon  return  to  his  labor, 
and  will  seldom  fail  to  pick  up  the  bait. 

It  is  often  useless  to  put  poison  in  holes  left  open  by 
gophers  when  at  work,  as  they  shove  the  poison  out  with 
the  dirt,  and  it  becomes  lost.  If  a  hole  is  opened  and 
poison  placed  therein,  it  should  be  closed  up  again,  as 
the  gopher,  seeing  the  light  and  feeling  the  air  where 
it  was  not  intended,  goes  to  work  to  remedy  that  evil 
by  shoving  a  load  of  dirt  against  the  opening,  thereby 
covering  up  or  throwing  out  the  bait. 

Sometimes  the  same  poisoned  grain  used  for  squirrels 
can  be  successfully  used  for  gophers  by  placing  it  in  the 
runways  as  first  described. 

The  Mole. — The  mole  is  an  insect-eater  and  as  such  is 
beneficial,  but  he  destroys  so  many  plants  while  mining 
for  grubs  and  worms,  that  the  gardener  can  well  dispense 
with  his  services.  The  best  way  to  do  this  is  to  watch 
for  the  rising  soil  and,  striking  in  just  behind  the  mole 
with  a  spade  or  shovel,  throw  him  out  and  finish  him. 
When  he  is  working  in  the  lawn  or  the  ground  is  too 
hard  for  this  treatment,  strike  into  the  moving  earth  with 
a  hatchet.  It  generally  arrives  and  we  have  killed  more 
moles  in  this  way  than  in  any  other. 


CHAPTER  VII1&. 
WEEDS  IN  CALIFORNIA. 

For  fear  that  a  book  on  gardening  without  a  chapter 
on  weeds  might  prove  too  great  a  shock  to  horticultural 
propriety,  this  concession  is  made  to  conventionality.  The 
fact  is  that  the  California  gardener  gives  himself  less  con- 
cern about  weeds  than  the  distant  reader  can  perhaps 
realize.  There  are  several  reasons  for  this: 

First:  It  is  possible  to  get  quite  clean  ground  for 
winter  gardening  by  weed-killing  cultivation  before  plant- 
ing. This  is  one  advantage  of  our  long  planting  season. 

Second:  Winter  gardening  is  free  from  many  weeds 
which  only  grow  in  high  temperatures. 

Third:  Owing  to  the  long  spring  season,  it  is  possible 
to  clean  with  plow  and  cultivators  the  land  which  is  to 
be  planted  after  frosts  are  over. 

Fourth :  Summer  growth  of  weeds  is  largely  prevented 
by  the  dry  surface  layer  of  the  soil,  and  those  who  do 
start  are  destroyed  by  the  persistent  summer  cultivation 
which  is  essential  to  the  preservation  of  moisture  for  the 
crop.  . 

Fifth :  Many  of  the  worst  weeds  of  humid  climates  can 
not  survive  our  dry  summer  in  uncultivated  soil  and  are 
thus  prevented  from  becoming  serious  pests  here  because 
of  their  own  natural  limitations. 

And  yet  we  do  have  weeds,  magnificent  weeds,  weeds 
which  reflect  the  growth-giving  resources  of  our  soil  and 
climate  quite  as  strikingly  as  do  our  useful  plants.  Mus- 
tard, turnip,  and  radish  extend  laterals  for  the  birds  of 
the  air  to  rest  upon.  Smartweed  grows  in  some  places 
too  high  for  a  man  to  look  over ;  in  other  places  morning- 
glary,  licorice,  Bermuda  and  Johnson  grasses  have  a  grip 


ASPARAGUS  PACKING. 


117 


upon  the  soil  which  it  is  almost  impossible  to  loosen.  Jim- 
son,  dogfennel,  and  others,  numerous  beyond  mention,  are 


found  in  varying  amounts  everywhere;  but  for  the  rea- 
son stated  above  they  do  not  give  the  gardener  such 
grievance  against  fate  as  their  names  might  suggest. 


118  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES. 

On  the  other  hand,  Canada  thistle  and  burdock  are  almost 
unknown,  while  plaintain,  pusley,  and  quack  grass  have 
in  some  places  assumed  quite  an  air  of  respectability  as 
forage  plants. 

Naturally,  weeds  are  worst  in  soils  which  are  moist  in 
summer,  such  as  the  rich  lowlands,  and  on  such  lands 
the  California  vegetable  grower  has  to  fight  for  his  crop. 
Some  winter-grown  plants,  like  onions,  are  secured  at  the 
cost  of  much  weeding  in  some  situations.  Still  it  is  true, 
as  remarked  above,  that  weeds  do  not,  taking  the  State 
as  a  whole,  call  for  such  an  amount  of  expensive  effort 
as  they  occasion  in  humid  climates,  and  if  the  garden  is 
arranged,  as  it  should  be,  for  the  free  use  of  horse-power, 
the  burden  of  hand  pulling  and  hoeing  is  reduced  to  a 
minimum,  and  the  exertion  of  a  prolonged  hand-to-hand 
contest  with  weeds  is  seldom  heard  of  in  California. 

For  these  reasons,  perhaps,  California  has  no  special 
contributions  to  make  to  the  general  knowledge  of  weed 
killing.  So  far,  however,  as  her  experience  goes,  it  is 
most  strenuously  in  favor  of  destroying  weeds  as  rob- 
bers of  moisture  which  must  be  saved  for  useful  plants. 
The  California  garden  must  be  clean  and  the  surface  must 
be  frequently  stirred,  whether  weeds  appear  or  not.  It 
may  be  fortunate,  then,  that  we  are  not  altogether  free 
from  weeds,  for  their  invitation  to  slaughter  accomplishes 
far  more  for  the  garden  than  their  own  destruction. 

Recently  weed  killing  by  spraying  with  solutions  of 
sulphate  of  iron  has  been  widely  demonstrated  to  be  suc- 
cessful. Lawn  intruders  like  dandelions  and  other  broad- 
leaved  weeds  can  be  killed  by  spraying  with  water  in 
which  iron  sulphate  has  been  dissolved  at  the  rate  of  two 
pounds  to  the  gallon,  without  permanent  injury  to  the 
grass,  but  most  vegetables  would  also  be  destroyed  by 
this  treatment.  Garden  walks  can  be  kept  clean  of  all 
growth  by  sprinkling  with  this  mixture:  Dissolve  one 
pound  of  caustic  soda  in  one  gallon  of  water  and  in  this 
solution  dissolve  one  and  one-half  pounds  of  white  ar- 


WEED  KILLING.  119 

senic.  Add  to  this  twenty  gallons  of  water  and  it  is 
ready  for  use.  But  this  has  to  be  used  circumspectly.  If 
the  poison  is  carried  to  the  roots  of  other  plants  or  trees 
by  rain  flow  or  irrigation,  it  will  kill  them  also. 

Eeally  the  best  treatment  of  weeds  is  to  destroy  them 
as  soon  as  they  appear  by  pulling,  hoeing,  or  cultivating, 
or  by  digging  or  plowing  them  into  the  soil  when  they 
make  taller  growth,  thus  adding  humus  to  the  soil  as  a 
product  of  their  decay,  as  is  discussed  in  the  chapter  on 
garden  fertilization. 


CHAPTER  VIIIc. 
SEED  GROWING  IN  CALIFORNIA. 

The  commercial  production  of  garden  seeds  in  Cali- 
fornia was  entered  upon  by  the  first  American  vegetable 
growers  as  a  branch  of  their  business.  The  difficulty  of 
obtaining  supplies  from  the  East  and  the  almost  fabulous 
prices  which  seeds  commanded,  acted  as  a  strong  incentive 
to  local  production.  The  inventory  of  Mr.  John  M. 
Horner's  productions  at  Alvarado  in  1851  included  eleven 
hundred  pounds  of  garden  seeds — onions,  beets  and  cab- 
bage. Mr.  A.  P.  Smith,  at  Sacramento,  had  twenty  acres 
devoted  to  seed  growing  in  1857,  and  the  following  record 
shows  that  he  had  been  doing  a  good  business  for  some 
time  before  that  date : 

"To  his  vegetable  seed  department  Mr.  Smith  turned 
his  attention  at  an  early  day,  and  has  pursued  it  till  now 
he  devotes  to  it  twenty  acres  of  ground  and  the  time  of 
several  laborers,  and  from  it  reaps  a  merited  reward.  His 
crop  of  seeds  for  the  last  four  years  has  reached  from 
three  to  four  thousand  pounds  per  annum,  which  up  to 
1858  averaged  about  three  dollars  per  pound.  They  now 
sell  for  less."— Rep.  Cal.  Agr.  Society,  1858,  p.  233. 

Another  pioneer  seed  grower  was  Mr.  D.  L.  Perkins  of 
Alameda.  The  record  states  that  he  "served  a  thorough 
apprenticeship  in  the  business  at  the  East  and  is  quite  at 
home  in  all  general  operations  connected  with  his  busi- 
ness." At  the  State  fair  in  1860,  premiums  for  garden 
seeds  were  awarded  to  A.  P.  Smith  of  Sacramento  and  to 
D.  L.  Perkins  of  Alameda.  The  committee  reported  both 
exhibits  very  meritorius  and  indulged  in  the  prophecy 
that  "the  time  is  at  hand  when  our  gardeners  will  be  saved 


SEED  GROWING.  121 

the  time,  trouble  and  expense  of  looking  abroad  for  their 
seeds." 

It  would  seem  that  Mr.  Perkins  must  be  credited  with  a 
broader  conception  of  the  opportunities  of  California  in 
seed  growing  than  was  known  to  the  awarding  committee. 
With  them  the  problem  was  local  supply.  Mr.  Perkins 
looked  beyond  that.  In  his  statement  submitted  with  a 
claim  for  a  gold  medal  at  the  State  fair  of  1867,  he  uses 
these  significant  words: 

"For  the  past  ten  years  all  my  time  has  been  given  to 
the  raising  of  seeds  *  *  *  striving  to  get  the  best  seeds 
from  all  parts  of  the  world.  During  the  past  three  years 
I  have  sent  collections  of  seeds  to  be  tested  at  the  East, 
and  the  results  in  size  and  quality  over  the  same  varieties 
grown  at  the  East  have  been  so  marked  that  several  par- 
ties have  ordered  from  me,  thus  showing  that  California 
can  compete  with  the  world  for  garden  seeds.  There  is 
no  State  in  the  Union  so  well  adapted  to  the  raising  of 
seeds  as  California.  During  five  years  past  I  have  sent 
samples  of  my  product  to  Japan,  China,  Sandwich  Islands, 
Mexico,  and  to  Europe. ' ' — Condensed  from  Rep.  Cal.  Agr. 
Society,  1866-7,  pp.  228  and  229. 

Probably  this  statement  of  Mr.  Perkins  was  the  first 
formal  prophecy  of  the  eminence  which  California  would 
ere  long  command  in  the  seed  markets  of  the  world.  It 
found  an  echo  in  the  words  of  Peter  Henderson,  the  vet- 
eran seedsman  and  florist,  who  wrote  in  1882 :  * '  California 
will,  I  am  certain,  fifty  years  from  now,  grow  seeds  for 
the  world.  It  has  all  the  conditions  of  soil  and  climate 
for  seed  growing."  The  progress  attained  during  the 
last  few  years  justifies  Mr.  Perkins'  enthusiastic  declara- 
tion and  indicates  that  Mr.  Henderson's  time  limit  was 
certainly  conservative  and  safe,  for  in  certain  lines  surely 
such  a  position  has  already  been  realized  and  in  less  than 
a  third  of  his  period. 

A  New  Start. — Mr.  Perkins  did  not  continue  to  the 
demonstration  of  his  problem.  His  attention  was  diverted 


122  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES. 

to  other  matters,  and  it  remained  for  others  to  actually 
work  the  mine  of  which  he  was  only  the  prospector. 
Theirs  have  been  the  labors  and  the  burdens,  and  it  is 
gratifying  to  add  that,  through  carrying  them  intelli- 
gently and  devotedly,  they  have  attained  reward  and  have, 
in  part  at  least,  realized  for  the  State  the  prominence 
which  was  prophesied  by  the  pioneers. 

In  1875  Mr.  R.  W.  Wilson,  previously  a  seed  grower  at 
Rochester,  New  York,  began  seed  growing  near  Santa 
Clara,  and  is  regarded  as  the  pioneer  of  the  present  era  of 
California  seed  growing.  He  began  on  about  fifty  acres 
of  land,  growing  principally  onion,  lettuce,  carrot,  and 
beet  seed.  Two  years  later  he  was  succeeded  by  Kellogg 
&  Morse,  who  continued  together,  increasing  the  dimen- 
tions  of  their  business  until  1889,  when  Mr.  Kellogg  re- 
tired and  C.  C.  Morse  &  Co.  became  the  successors  to  the 
business.  They  have  extended  and  developed  their  enter- 
prise to  dimensions  which  few  Californians  realize,  and 
now  are  not  only  leaders  in  seed  growing,  but  in  the  seed 
trade  also.  Aside  from  this  large  firm  there  are  other 
producers  who  have  achieved  most  creditable  results,  both 
in  the  general  product  and  in  the  development  of  spe- 
cialties which  have  given  them  wide  reputation  and  con- 
tributed to  the  fame  of  the  State  in  advanced  horticul- 
ture. 

What  is  usually  meant  by  seed  growing,  as  popularly 
understood  in  California,  is  the  production  of  lettuce, 
onion,  carrot,  celery,  etc. ;  also  sweet  peas  and  other  flower 
seeds.  While  quite  a  large  acreage  is  devoted  to  seed 
beans  and  garden  peas,  the  things  peculiarly  Californian 
are  the  small  vegetable  and  flower  seeds,  and  the  three 
pre-eminent  specialties  are  onions,  lettuce  and  sweet  peas. 
We  lead  the  world  in  the  production  of  these  three  items, 
and  California  annually  sets  the  price  for  all  the  American 
trade  in  them,  and  also  largely  influences  the  European 
seed  trade.  California  is  also  a  large  producer  of  other 
vegetable  seeds,  and  to  give  one  some  idea  of  about  what 


SEED  GROWING.  123 

area  is  devoted  to  seed  growing,  an  estimate  the  total 
acreage  in  the  State  of  the  usual  California  grown  list  of 
seeds,  is  about  6500  acres,  approximately  divided  as  fol- 
lows: Carrots,  about  250  acres;  celery,  about  100  acres; 
cucumbers,  about  150  acres;  endive,  about  50  acres; 
parsley,  about  50  acres;  parsnips,  about  25  acres;  radish, 
about  500  acres;  onions,  about  3000  acres;  lettuce,  about 
750  acres;  salsify,  about  50  acres;  tomatoes,  about  100 
acres;  spinach,  about  100  acres.  In  flower  seeds,  sweet 
peas,  about  1250  acres;  nasturtiums,  about  25  acres,  and 
considerable  breadths  of  asters,  balsam,  poppy,  phlox, 
sunflowers,  mignonette,  verbena,  etc.  The  smaller  seeds  of 
flowers  are  not  grown  extensively,  and  are  still  largely 
imported. 

The  coast  valleys  of  California  afford  conditions  favor- 
ing seed  growing  in  a  high  degree.  The  only  seed  farms 
of  any  considerable  production  are  located  in  Los  An- 
geles, San  Luis  Obispo,  San  Benito,  and  Santa  Clara  coun- 
ties, the  latter  claiming  fully  75  per  cent  of  the  total 
acreage. 

It  will  be  impossible  to  adequately  describe  California 
seed  growing  in  a  single  chapter.  Only  a  few  salient  facts 
can  be  mentioned. 

Onion  Seed. — This  seed  has  held  the  leading  place  in 
California  seed  growing  from  the  very  beginning — at  first 
for  local  use,  afterward  for  distant  sale.  In  spite  of  the 
Eastern  plaudits  which  Mr.  Perkins  won  for  his  seed,  as 
already  stated,  it  was  a  difficult  undertaking  to  induce 
Eastern  dealers  to  use  it  largely  at  first.  When  Mr.  Wil- 
son offered  his  first  crop  of  onion  seed  in  the  East,  scarcely 
any  one  would  touch  it,  and  some  who  did  claimed  after- 
ward that  the  bulbs  grown  from  it  were  soft,  would  not 
keep  and  were  inferior.  The  next  year  Mr.  Wilson  sent 
quite  a  quantity  of  the  seed  to  a  dozen  or  more  of  the 
leading  dealers,  who  planted  it  beside  Eastern  seed.  In 
the  fall  Mr.  Wilson  went  East  and  personally  inspected 
the  crops,  compared  the  bulbs  and  was  able  to  show  that 


124  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES. 

in  every  instance  California  seed  produced  as  good  onions 
as  they  had  been  using  before.  From  that  time  on  Cali- 
fornia onion  seed  has  constantly  grown  in  favor,  and  this 
State  has  .become  almost  the  only  source  of  supplies, 
though  there  are  some  Eastern  States  in  which  a  consid- 
erable amount  is  still  grown.  This  popularity  secured  a 
price  which  was  quite  profitable,  and  many  grew  onion 
seed — -too  many,  in  fact,  for  there  is  occasionally  disas- 
trous overproduction. 

Lettuce. — Lettuce  seed  is  a  leading  crop  with  California 
seed  growers.  The  climate  of  some  parts  of  the  coast  val- 
leys is  admirably  adapted  to  it.  It  requires  careful,  pains- 
taking work  to  maintain  choice  varieties.  Unfortunately, 
the  plant  seeds  most  freely  in  a  semi-wild  condition,  and 
some  of  the  less  critical  growers  have  allowed  it  to  grow 
in  this  way,  thereby  increasing  yield  and  profit.  The  care- 
ful grower  proceeds  with  cultivation  fitted  to  retain  the 
characters  of  the  variety,  thins  out  the  plants  so  that  each 
will  form  a  perfect  head  and  be  true  to  the  type,  and  then 
the  heading  or  cabbage  varieties  must  have  the  head  cut 
open  with  a  knife  to  allow  the  seed  stem  to  come  through ; 
otherwise  the  plant  will  rot  without  running  to  seed.  This 
method  of  growing  is  not  conducive  to  a  large  seed  pro- 
duct, but  it  improves  the  strain,  while  the  work  of  the 
careless  grower  tends  to  reversion. 

Other  Plants. — Carrot,  celery,  leek,  endive,  kale,  kohl- 
rabi, parsnip,  and  parsley  are  all  grown  by  California 
seed  growers,  though  their  demand  is  limited,  owing  to 
keen  competition  with  European  growers,  who  are  usu- 
ally able  to  contract  these  crops  at  less  than  the  cost  of 
production  here.  Peas,  beans  (except  Limas),  corn,  and 
some  other  seeds  are  not  profitable  because  of  competition 
with  growers  in  the  middle  Western  States.  Egg  plant,  in 
spite  of  the  excellence  of  the  vegetable  as  noted  in  a  later 
chapter,  has  disappointed  the  seed  growers,  and  okra  has 
done  likewise.  Turnips  and  Brussels  sprouts  have  not 
prospered  as  seed  crops,  while  cabbage  does  excellently. 


126  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES. 

Cauliflower  also  seeds  well  some  years,  but  in  others  it 
completely  fails,  which  renders  its  average  below  the  profit 
line.  Lima  beans  for  seed  have  failed,  except  in  the 
southern  coast  district  described  in  the  chapter  on  beans, 
but  in  that  district  growers  have  enjoyed  some  very 
profitable  contracts  with  Eastern  dealers. 

Flower  Seeds. — Various  flowers  have  been  grown  for 
seed,  in  fact,  a  great  assortment  of  varieties,  and,  while 
nearly  all  kinds  flourish,  there  is  so  much  hand  work  and 
close  application  necessary,  that  we  have  not  been  able  to 
successfully  compete  with  Europe  on  most  things.  Sweet 
peas;  nasturtiums,  cosmos,  verbenas,  petunias,  balsams, 
poppies,  sunflowers,  phlox,  mignonette  and  asters  are  quite 
successfully  grown,  and  the  seed  trade  looks  to  California 
for  most  of  the  sweet  peas  and  a  great  many  of  the  nas- 
turtiums. Southern  California  has  several  very  prominent 
growers  of  fine  double  petunias  and  other  plants. 

The  rapid  advance  of  the  California  sweet  pea  seed  in 
popularity  is  most  marvelous.  A  beginning  was  made  in 
this  line  in  a  moderate  way  about  1885,  when  there  were 
not  over  a  dozen  varieties  listed.  At  first  about  a  quarter 
of  an  acre  was  grown ;  now  the  total  acreage  is  about 
1250  acres,  as  stated.  So  important  a  factor  have  the 
California  sweet  pea  growers  become  to  the  seed  trade 
that  some  dealers  come  from  the  East  annually  to  inspect 
the  growing  crops  and  to  hunt  for  novelties  in  the  sweet 
pea  line.  One  will  know  California  sweet  pea  wherever 
grown  by  its  wonderful  vigor. 

Sweet  peas  are  planted  in  November  and  December  to 
secure  the  flowers  at  their  very  best  about  the  middle  of 
May.  They  grow  slowly  throughout  the  winter,  but  just 
as  soon  as  the  days  lengthen  and  the  weather  grows  warm, 
they  fairly  spring  into  bloom,  while  later  sown  seed  will 
mature  blossoms  correspondingly  late. 

The  careful  grower  devotes  a  great  deal  of  time  to 
roguing  his  crops.  In  spite  of  the  greatest  care  in  selec- 


SEED  GROWING.  127 

tion  there  will  always  be  a  few  off  plants,  and  these  must 
come  out  to  keep  the  stock  pure. 

One  Use  of  Machinery. — Improved  cleaning  machinery 
has  proved  an  important  factor  in  the  production  of  a 
bright,  fresh-looking  sample  of  seed,  and  has  improved  the 
vitality  test  by  allowing  a  thorough  separation  of  every- 
thing spurious  from  the  good  seed.  Hand  mills  are  em- 
ployed to  some  extent  for  small  lots,  but  the  main  cleaning 
is  done  with  large  Clipper  Mills,  operated  by  gasoline  en- 
gines, and  sometimes  the  electric  motor  is  used.  This 
gives  a  steadier  power  and  a  much  larger  capacity.  It 
was  not  until  a  few  years  ago  that  onion  seed  could  be 
successfully  threshed  and  separated  by  one  of  the  same 
mills.  After  years  of  experimenting  and  great  expense, 
one  was  built  that  could  successfully  do  this,  and  now 
onion  seed  is  threshed  and  cleaned  by  large  mills  run  with 
steam  engines.  It  is,  however,  still  necessary  to  sink  the 
seed  in  water  to  get  it  perfectly  clean. 

Hand  Labor. — Nothing  has  been  invented  for  threshing 
lettuce,  cabbage,  parsnip,  parsley,  etc.,  which  is  any  im-' 
provement  on  the  hand  flail,  .and  gangs  of  men  are  em- 
ployed in  threshing  these  crops.  The  diversity  of  the 
crops  and  the  innumerable  variety  would  make  it  natu- 
rally unprofitable  to  attempt  to  employ  machinery  in  the 
field  for  these  kinds  of  seed. 

The  seed  grower  must  depend  upon  a  great  deal  of  hand 
work.  Everything  must  be  harvested  by  hand;  every 
onion  head  must  be  cut  by  hand;  every  stalk  of  lettuce 
and  carrot  must  be  dried,  turned,  threshed,  cleaned  and 
recleaned.  Carrot  seed  must  not  only  be  flailed  to  thresh 
it,  but  it  must  also  be  run  through  a  rubbing  machine  to 
break  the  beards  off  and  then  cleaned  in-doors. 

All  the  planting  and  cultivating  must  be  done  very 
carefully,  and  much  of  it  is  hand  work.  Every  onion  bulb 
must  be  set  right  side  up  in  the  row,  then  carefully  cov- 
ered, or  left  for  a  time  in  the  open  drill  af*:r  setting  if 
there  should  be  danger  of  soil  saturation  from  heavy  rains 


128  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES. 

which  sometimes  fall  at  the  planting  time  in  December. 
Celery  plants  are  twice  transplanted  before  being  finally 
set  out  in  the  field.  Carrots  and  all  roots  must  be  selected 
and  taken  out  to  be  transplanted,  all  which  are  defective 
in  shape  and  color  being  thrown  out. 

The  careful  seed  grower  always  makes  careful  selections 
of  everything  he  has  growing,  which  he  plants  seperately 
for  his  own  stock  seed.  There  will  always  be  some  roots 
or  plants  that  are  rather  better  in  being  nearer  the  true 
type  and  color  than  the  others,  and  it  is  from  among  these 
that  the  careful  grower  makes  his  selections. 

Climatic  Advantages. — In  addition  to  the  advantages  of 
the  California  climate  in  growing  the  plants,  there  are 
other  advantages  in  handling  the  crop.  The  long,  dry 
summers  afford  a  fine  opportunity  to  thoroughly  dry  the 
seed  and  permit  a  large  part  of  the  harvest  work  to  be 
done  in  the  field.  It  is  not  necessary  to  build  great  barns 
and  drying  sheds  as  they  do  in  the  East,  although  the 
large  California  growers  provide  themselves  with  large 
cleaning  houses  and  storage  warehouses  into  which  to  take 
the  seed  as  soon  as  it  is  sacked  and  ready  for  shipment. 

The  Future. — It  has  taken  all  these  years  to  learn  how 
to  grow  seeds  and  to  have  trained  a  number  of  men  who 
also  know  how,  and  what  to  do,  so  that  in  the  future  even 
greater  and  more  interesting  developments  may  be  ex- 
pected in  all  branches  of  seed  growing.  One  hardly  knows 
what  the  possibilities  are,  but  the  past  has  clearly  shown 
that  our  soil  and  climate  will  be  great  aids  to  future  ac- 
complishment, and  in  our  wide  range  of  natural  conditions 
it  is  reasonable  to  expect  that  many  things  not  now  under- 
taken, may  find  a  favorable  environment,  and  reward  the 
intelligent  and  painstaking  grower. 


CHAPTER  IX. 
GARDEN  LOCATION  AND  ARRANGEMENT. 

Several  things  should  be  considered  in  locating  the 
farm  garden,  for  much  depends  upon  selecting :  first,  the 
best  soil  for  the  purpose  the  farm  affords;  second,  situa- 
tion with  relation  to  protection,  warmth  and  drainage; 
third,  nearness  to  water  supply  for  irrigation ;  fourth, 
nearness  to  the  home  and  protection  from  intrusion.  It 
may  not  be  possible  to  combine  all  these  points  in  a  single 
situation,  and  then  it  may  be  advisable  to  make  two  loca- 
tions, or,  in  making  one,  to  sacrifice  convenience  to  the 
more  imperative  conditions  of  exposure,  soil  and  moisture. 

Choice  of  Soil. — General  considerations  in  connection 
with  soils  may  be  found  in  other  chapters.  Of  course,  for 
ease  of  work  as  well  as  for  other  considerations  a  rich  loam 
should  be  chosen — the  best  that  the  ranch  affords.  As  to 
grades  of  loam,  the  lighter  should  be  chosen  for  the  win- 
ter garden  because  of  the  better  natural  drainage  and 
warmth  and  the  short  time  in  which  such  soils  will  take 
tools  and  seeds  well  after  heavy  rains.  The  heavier  and 
more  retentive  soil  will  better  suit  the  summer  garden. 
Sometimes  these  two  soils  may  be  found  beside  each  other 
in  the  same  acre;  sometimes  the  soil  can  be  readily  im- 
proved in  these  lines,  as  may  be  seen  in  the  chapter  on 
soils,  or  small  pieces  at  a  distance  from  each  other  may  be 
chosen  if  each  has  distinctive  fitness. 

Situation  and  Exposure. — Situation  should  be  consid- 
ered, for  warmth  and  protection  as  well  as  drainage,  as  is 
explained  in  other  chapters.  Though  garden  ground  in 
general  is  most  conveniently  worked  if  it  has  just  enough 
grade  for  the  slow  distribution  of  water,  for  winter  and 
early  spring  growth  an  elevation  out  of  the  frosts  of  the 


130  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES. 

low  grounds  and  into  the  superior  heat  of  the  southerly 
slopes  will  be  found  of  advantage.  In  addition  to  the 
ridge  above,  such  protection  from  north  and  northwest 
winds  as  a  windbreak  of  trees  or  farm  buildings  or  a  high 
fence  will  be  valuable.  There  is  great  difference  in  the 
safety  and  speed  of  winter  vegetables  on  benches  and  hill- 
sides, as  compared  with  the  lower  lands  at  their  feet  only 
a  few  rods  away  perhaps.  Warm  protected  slopes  are  best 
for  winter  and  the  worst  for  summer  vegetables.  Shallow 
soil  spread  on  porous  rock  is  non-retentive  and  warm  for 
winter  growth,  but  it  may  be  impossible,  even  with  irriga- 
tion, to  carry  good  succulent  growth  on  it  during  the  blis- 
tering summer  heat.  Then  the  deep  loams  of  the  creek 
borders  and  other  level  lands  delight  the  gardener  with 
the  largest  returns  for  the  least  water. 

Nearness  to  Water  Supply. — The  summer  garden  should 
be  near  the  water  supply,  if  it  be  developed  from  home 
sources,  or  the  water  should  be  piped  to  it,  which  is  almost 
equivalent  to  moving  the  reservoir  to  the  garden  site.  Car- 
riage of  water  in  a  flume  entails  losses  by  leakage  and 
evaporation  and  earth-ditches  are  distressingly  wasteful 
by  evaporation  and  percolation.  One  often  sees  water 
started  on  its  wayfrom  the  homesite  tanks  toward  a  dis- 
tant garden,  making  mud-holes  and  losing  volume  all  the 
way.  In  many  cases  another  well-outfit  for  the  sole  use  of 
the  garden  would  be  a  good  investment. 

Nearness  to  the  Home. — If  fairly  good  conditions  exist 
near  the  home  site,  by  all  means  locate  the  garden  there. 
It  will  win  the  interest  and  profits  by  the  attention  of  the 
family,  and  will  yield  its  supplies  directly  to  their  hands 
in  most  cases.  Besides,  with  the  tools  handy,  spare  hours 
now  and  then  will  be  given  to  its  working  when  the  leisure 
is  too  short  to  warrant  or  incline  one  to  walk  to  a  distant 
patch.  The  time  thus  saved  may  almost  keep  the  garden 
going  in  good  shape.  Then,  a  well-kept  garden  is  an  or- 
nament and  the  ornamentation  of  our  rural  homes  is  often 
rather  scant. 

Protection  from  Intrusion, — To  be  any  comfort  and 


ARRANGEMENT  FOR  HORSE  WORK.  131 

gratification  whatever  the  farm  garden  must  be  protected 
from  intruders.  One  of  the  chief  objections  to  locating 
vegetable  patches  here  and  there  in  the  best  situations  for 
special  purposes  lies  in  the  trouble  of  excluding  wild 
marauders  of  all  sizes  from  a  jack-rabbit  to  a  deer  and  the 
whole  range  of  domestic  invaders  from  the  pasture  or 
corral.  This  fact  alone  compels  many  to  forego  vegetable 
planting  except  in  the  well-fenced  house-yard.  It  is  not 
difficult  to  inclose  a  few  square  rods  with  wire  netting  or 
with  the  woven  stock  fence  of  wire  and  driven  posts — the 
whole  to  be  rolled  up  and  stored  or  moved  to  another  in- 
closure  as  the  progress  of  the  season  gives  it  new  uses. 

A  home-grown  fence  is  quite  possible  in  California,  us- 
ing for  pickets  the  southern  cane  or  the  Asiatic  bamboos, 
both  of  which  grow  readily  on  moist  land  in  this  State. 
Posts  may  be  set  a  rod  apart.  With  an  inexpensive  machine 
the  canes  may  be  woven  into  a  web,  using  six  No.  14  wires 
for  the  chain.  If  the  canes  are  cut  three  and  one-half  feet 
long,  and  the  fence  posts  are  four  feet  above  the  ground, 
along  the  top  of  them  a  barbed  wire  may  be  stretched,  so 
that  when  completed  one  has  a  chicken  or  rabbit  fence  as 
well  as  a  strong  stock  fence.  This  fence  is  very  durable, 
the  cane  becoming  as  hard  as  bone  and  never  rotting ;  rab- 
bits can  not  gnaw  it,  and  it  will  not  ignite  from  burning 
grass  near  it  as  common  pine  fencing  or  lath  will ;  stock 
can  see  it  and  hence  will  not  run  against  it.  It  can  be 
made  of  any  height  desired,  the  canes  growing  as  high  as 
12  to  15  feet.  It  may  be  taken  down,  rolled  up  and  moved 
without  injury  and  at  slight  expense. 

ARRANGEMENT  FOR  HORSE  WORK. 

Although  our  foreign-born  friends  who  do  most  of  the 
market  garden  work  in  California  retain  their  native  pre- 
dilection for  hand  labor  and  plan  their  gardens  accord- 
ingly, it  is  advisable  that  farm  vegetable  growers  should 
arrange  to  use  as  much  horse  power  as  possible.  Both  for 
this  purpose  and  to  facilitate  furrow  irrigation  or  seepage 
ditch  irrigating,  if  the  slope  suits  it,  the  garden  should  be 


132  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES. 

somewhat  brick-shaped,  because  of  the  greater  work  which 
can  be  done  with  the  same  or  fewer  turnings  of  the  horse 
or  team  than  on  a  square  piece.  At  both  ends  there  should 
be  a  roadway  left  for  turning  the  team.  This  shape  is 
equally  adapted  for  flat  or  ridge  cultivation. 

In  the  horse-power  farm  garden  there  should,  of  course, 
be  no  permanent  walks.  If  walks  are  desired,  leave  spaces 
lengthwise  unplanted  and  uncultivated  and  smooth  down 
the  surface  with  a  roller.  Such  arrangements,  however, 
waste  land  and  waste  moisture,  for  the  hard  ground  draws 
water  laterally.  It  is  better  economy  therefore  to  evenly 
cultivate  the  whole  area.  Lay  out  the  plantings  in  straight 
rows  for  ease  of  cultivation,  and  either  plant  full  rows  of 
each  vegetable  or  continue  the  row  with  another  kind 
which  requires  the  same  distance  between  rows.  Proper 
distances  for  each  vegetable  will  be  considered  in  subse- 
quent chapters.  It  is  convenient  to  make  the  distances 
multiples  of  some  unit.  For  instance  two  feet  between  the 
rows  is  about  the  minimum  distance  for  horse  cultivation. 
Some  growers  therefore  plant  at  two,  four,  six,  eight,  etc., 
feet  distances;  others  start  with  three  feet  and  proceed 
with  six,  nine,  twelve,  etc., — the  latter  for  the  largest  run- 
ning vines.  This  makes  rows  of  the  small,  upright  grow- 
ers a  yard  apart,  which  is  rather  too  great  a  distance 
ordinarily. 

It  is  often  a  great  convenience  to  have  permanent  dis- 
tance stakes  set  close  to  the  fences  on  the  ends  of  the  plot 
and  placing  them  the  accepted  unit  apart.  It  is  easy  to 
regulate  distances  by  slipping  the  planting  line  over  two 
opposite  stakes  which  give  the  desired  separation.  If  one 
has  a  good  horse  and  a  good  eye,  he  will,  however,  prob- 
ably prefer  to  use  a  "marker"  made  with  thills  and  plow 
handles  properly  fastened  to  a  cross-bar  eight  or  ten  feet 
long  and  fitted  with  wooden  teeth  such  distance  apart  as 
he  adopts  as  his  unit  of  distance  between  the  rows.  Start- 
ing then  with  a  straight  guide-line  on  the  surface  on  one 
side,  three  or  four  parallel  lines  can  be  clearly  marked  at 
one  driving  over.  Following:  these  marks  with  the  garden 


VEGETABLE  GROWING  IN  YOUNG  ORCHARD.         133 

drill,  or  with  the  hoe  planting,  very  straight  lines  of  seed- 
ing can  be  done  in  a  fraction  of  the  time  needed  to  work 
with  a  line.  But  whether  line  or  marker  be  used,  it  is  de- 
sirable to  rotate  the  plants  year  by  year  so  that  the  narrow 
and  wide  row  plantings  shall  change  places  on  the  plot, 
else  one  might  be  so  supernaturally  accurate  that  the  rows 
would  come  everlastingly  on  the  same  lines,  which  would 
not  be  desirable  even  if  the  soil  were  somewhat  displaced 
laterally  by  cultivation. 

It  is  great  convenience  in  arranging  for  due  succession 
in  the  garden  (which  will  be  farther  considered  in  the 
chapter  on  planting)  to  give  adjacent  rows  to  vegetables 
which  mature  at  about  the  same  time.  By  this  arrange- 
ment, say,  half  or  a  quarter  of  the  garden  lengthwise  can 
be  cleaned  up  at  the  same  time  and  the  whole  section  be 
at  once  replanted' or  plowed  up  for  later  planting  or  irri- 
gating as  may  be  desirable.  Of  course  if  early  plantings 
for  winter  use  are  made  in  the  same  plot  with  plantings 
which  will  go  into  the  summer,  each  should  be  in  its  own 
quarter  of  the  garden. 

In  arranging  the  summer  garden  in  the  interior  heat,  it 
is  sometimes  desirable  to  place  low,  tender-leaved  plants 
like  lettuce  between  rows  of  tall  vegetables  which  afford  it 
partial  shade.  Tall  corn  or  pole  beans  may  thus  take  the 
place  of  artificial  screens  which  might  otherwise  be  nec- 
essary. 

VEGETABLE  GROWING  IN  YOUNG  ORCHARD  AND 
VINEYARD. 

This  subject  is  usually  discussed  from  the  point  of  view 
of  injury  to  the  trees  and  rightly  so  because  the  trees  rep- 
resent the  greater  investments  and  the  greater  expectations, 
but  the  lowly  vegetables  have  a  point  of  view  also  and 
by  their  appearance  they  clearly  declare  that  whether  they 
hurt  the  trees  or  not  they  would  like  a  better  place  on  their 
own  account.  It  is  a  fact  that  inter-culture  of  vegetables 
in  an  orchard  is  soon  abandoned  because  the  vegetables  do 
not  pay  for  the  trouble  and  by  the  sight  of  them  one  is 


134  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES. 

not  surprised  that  they  do  not  pay.  It  would  probably  be 
much  better  for  trees,  vegetables  and  owner  if  half  an 
acre,  if  for  home  use,  and  larger  area,  if  for  market,  should 
be  kept  free  of  trees  and  handled  on  a  more  intensive  plan 
for  the  production  of  fine  vegetables.  When  fruit  prices 
were  higher  and  orchard  improvements  the  only  avenue 
to  high  acre-valuation,  it  is  not  surprising  that  people 
tried  to  plant  fruit  trees  everywhere  on  small  tract  pur- 
chases— even  to  making  clothes-line  posts  of  them,  but 
now  as  other  resources  are  receiving  better  proportional 
esteem,  a  small,  first-class  garden  spot,  worked  up  to  the 
limits  of  its  possibilities,  should  receive  attention  not  only 
for  constant  money-saving  and  money-making,  but  as  one 
of  the  most  valuable  improvements  on  the  place. 

There  is  no  particular  disadvantage  or  difficulty  in  grow- 
ing vegetables  in  young  orchards  or  vineyards  providing 
conditions  are  right  for  it.  Fruits  and  vegetables  have 
been  associated  in  gardens,  probably,  ever  since  Adam 
failed  through  giving  too  much  attention  to  fruit.  But  the 
association  of  fruits  and  vegetables  has  been  successful 
upon  the  garden  policy  of  enrichment,  irrigation,  and  the 
highest  known  culture.  This  is  quite  different  from  the 
proposition  as  it  has  arisen  in  California  which  is  to  grow 
vegetables  upon  the  orchard  policy  of  cultivation  for  con- 
servation of  moisture  and  trust  to  the  natural  fertility  of 
the  land.  It  is  not  surprising  that  the  soil  often  rebels  at 
the  double  burden  as  beyond  its  strength  and  dictates  its 
terms  to  the  grower — by  so  much  as  you  gain  of  one  by  so 
much  you  shall  lose  of  the  other. 

It  may  be  seen,  however,  in  the  chapters  on  soils  and 
irrigation  that  California  has  natural  soils  and  situations 
which  are  quite  comparable  with  the  best  conditions  which 
intensive  culture  can  produce  in  the  gardens  of  older  lands 
and,  this  being  true,  it  is  possible  to  draw  upon  their  rich 
resources  in  the  same  way.  It  is  quite  possible  then  to 
grow  good  vegetables  betAveen  young  fruit  trees  and  for 
a  certain  period  it  can  be  done  without  irreparable  injury 
to  the  trees,  providing  the  local  conditions  warrant  the 


VEGETABLE  GROWING  IN  YOUNG  ORCHARD.         135 

practice.    These  conditions  may  be  thus  summarized : 

If  the  soil  be  of  only  average  richness,  the  rainfall  mod- 
erate to  meagre  in  amount,  and  no  facilities  for  irrigation, 
it  would  be  unfortunate  to  place  any  other  burden  on  the 
land  than  the  growth  of  the  trees. 

If  the  soil  be  not  very  rich  and  the  rainfall  heavy,  but 
the  moisture  easily  lost  by  percolation  or  evaporation, 
owing  to  non-retentiveness  of  the  soil,  and  no  irrigation 
facilities,  give  the  trees  all  the  ground  and  the  most  per- 
fect summer  cultivation  possible. 

If  the  land  be  rich,  the  rainfall  abundant  and  moisture 
held  well  in  the  soil,  or  if  irrigation  can  be  made  use  of, 
it  is  fair  to  think  of  an  -inter-crop  during  the  early  years 
of  the  orchard,  providing  the  crop  can  be  profitably  dis- 
posed of,  its  nature  is  such  that  no  heavy  draft  is  made 
on  fertility,  and  the  financial  condition  of  the  planter  re- 
quires immediate  return  from  the  land,  if  possible. 

It  thus  appears  that  an  inter-crop  is  finally  made  to 
hinge  upon  the  grower's  necessities,  and  the  inference 
would  be  that  if  the  money  is  not  needed  immediately,  it 
would  be  wiser  to  hold  the  whole  strength  of  the  soil  as  an 
investment  on  which  returns  are  to  be  finally  had  in  the 
increased  growth  and  fuller  fruiting  of  the  trees  in  later 
years. 

This  views  the  matter  from  a  commercial  point  of  view 
and  therefore  in  its  most  aggravated  form.  If  it  is  merely 
a  question  of  whether  the  home  supply  of  vegetables  shall 
be  taken  from  the  young  orchard  or  vineyard,  it  is  less 
serious  and  can  be  more  freely  commended. 

In  growing  vegetables  between  the  rows  of  trees  or 
vines,  much  depends  of  course  upon  the  time  and  the  way 
it  is  done.  If  water  can  be  applied  between  the  rows  late 
in  the  summer  in  such  a  way  that  it  will  not  prevent  the 
deciduous  trees  from  going  forward  to  their  usual  dor- 
mancy, or  if  the  grower  waits  until  the  fall  rains  wet  the 
ground  sufficiently  and  then  puts  in  his  vegetables  for  late 
fall  and  winter  growth  without  carrying  them  too  near 
the  trees,  he  can  make  his  winter  garden,  enjoy  its  pro- 


136  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES. 

duce,  and  plow  in  the  debris  so  early  in  the  spring  that 
no  appreciable  injury  will  be  done  to  the  trees,  unless  he 
is  on  that  line  of  light  rainfall  where  every  possible  effort 
is  demanded  to  receive  and  conserve  all  the  water  that 
falls.  If  that  be  the  case  he  has  to  cultivate  to  conserve 
moisture  both  winter  and  summer  and  should  not  think 
even  of  winter  vegetables  in  the  orchard. 

Perhaps  the  chief  objection  to  winter  vegetable  grow- 
ing is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  crop  is  usually  planted  too 
late  and  is  allowed  to  occupy  the  ground  so  late  in  the 
spring  that  the  soil  can  not  be  brought  into  fine  tilth  which 
is  necessary  to  save  moisture.  Instead  of  this  the  impacted 
ground  on  which  the  vegetables  stood  is  turned  up  in  clods 
which  no  amount  of  crushing  will  reduce  to  tilth  and  the 
orchard  loses  by  defective  cultivation  more  moisture  than 
the  vegetables  consumed  in  their  growth. 

The  summer  growth  of  vegetables  in  the  orchard  is  a 
more  dangerous  operation  and  whether  it  should  be  under- 
taken or  not  depends  upon  local  conditions  previously 
outlined.  Perhaps  a  specific  instance  may  enforce  the 
point  and  show  what  may  be  taken  as  favored  soil  and 
moisture  conditions.  In  the  lower  lands  of  the  Santa 
Clara  valley,  near  San  Jose,  there  have  been  constant  con- 
tributions to  fertility  by  overflows  from  mountain  water 
bringing  leaf  mold  and  other  materials  found  in  the  de- 
posits of  * '  slum, ' '  which  renew  and  keep  up  the  fertility 
of  the  soil.  Much  of  this  land  has  been  under  cultivation 
50  years  and  upwards,  and  yet  is  known  as  garden  soil. 
Much  of  this  land  is  adobe,  naturally  remarkably  produc- 
tive, aside  from  its  benefits  from  overflow.  Such  soils  have 
proved  able  to  produce,  without  apparent  exhaustion,  or- 
chard trees  and  the  crops  that  are  grown  among  them. 
There'  is  an  abundance  of  artesian  water  for  use  when 
needed.  It  has  been  a  common  custom  in  this  artesian 
belt,  so  noted  for  strawberries,  to  grow  onions  on  the 
ridges  between  the  strawberry  rows,  and  along  the  sides 
of  other  berry  bushes.  Onions  are  thus  grown  during  sev- 
eral successive  years  until  the  ground  is  too  crowded. 


VEGETABLE  GROWING  IN  YOUNG  ORCHARD.         137 

% 

Beets,  carrots,  peas,  and  other  vegetables  are  sometimes 
grown  among  the  berries.  Crops  of  onion  seed' have  been 
grown  among  the  trees  of  young  orchards  without  irriga- 
tion and  the  trees  have  done  quite  as  well  as  when  they 
had  the  ground  all  to  themselves.  Free  use  of  the  culti- 
vator has  kept  the  ground  loose  and  moist,  after  one  or 
two  plowings.  By  irrigating  in  the  fall,  the  ground  can 
be  plowed  so  as  to  start  the  onions  before  the  rains,  though 
this  is  not  usually  done.  Onions  planted  any  time  between 
October  and  February  may  be  considered  best,  though 
much  depends  on  the  season.  It  should  be  understood 
that,  aside  from  the  favoring  soil  and  artesian  wells,  this 
locality  is  in  line  with  the  summer  breezes  that  come  in 
from  the  ocean  through  the  Golden  Gate,  40  miles  away, 
adding  moisture  to  temper  the  otherwise  heated  atmos- 
phere of  the  valley.  Of  course  we  have  only  used  the 
onion  as  an  example  of  a  hardy,  winter  growing  vegetable 
and  what  we  have  said  of  it  applies  to  all  other  upright 
winter  growers  which  do  not  make  much  lateral  extension 
in  their  growth. 

Such  land  will  carry  all  growths  that  can  find  standing 
room  on  it.  Similar  conditions  are  found  on  low,  moist 
valley  lands  in  nearly  all  parts  of  the  State,  both  in  the 
Coast  and  the  interior  valleys.  The  land  has  such  wealth 
of  plant  food  and  moisture  that  summer  weed-killing, 
which  is  not  common  in  California,  is  quite  a  problem. 
Where  weeds  will  grow  in  spite  of  ordinary  good  summer 
cultivation,  the  land  will  stand  almost  covering  with  use- 
ful plants  and  it  costs  little  more  to  grow  them  than  to 
keep  down  the  wonderful  weeds. 


CHAPTER  X. 
THE  PLANTING  SEASON. 

The  chapter  on  California  climates  as  related  to  vege- 
table growing  will  show  that  there  is  really  no  closed 
season  in  the  State  except  in  the  mountain  districts.  It  is 
always  time  to  plant  something,  if  the  moisture  is  avail- 
able, for  there  is  no  degree  of  cold  realized  which  en- 
dangers the  hardier  vegetables.  It  is  true  that  in  Decem- 
ber and  January  in  the  regions  of  heavy  rainfall,  there  is 
apt  to  be  a  cold,  wet  surface  soil  which  does  not  give  a 
hospitable  welcome  either  to  seed  or  seedlings  but  even 
this  can  be  overcome  by  using  lighter  soil  at  a  little  higher 
elevation  or  by  the  devices  for  raising  plants  in  the  seed- 
bed unless  one  wishes  to  wait  for  February  planting  as  is 
commonly  done  in  such  places.  The  antithesis  of  the  De- 
cember and  January  cold  is  the  July  and  August  heat  and 
drought  in  the  interior,  but  this  too  is  conquerable  by  irri- 
gation, with  added  shade  for  some  tender-leafed  plants,  or 
by  choosing  moist,  low  land,  of  which  California  valleys 
both  on  the  Coast  and  in  the  interior  have  great  areas. 
The  conclusion  of  the  whole  matter  is  that  California  val- 
leys and  foot-hills  are  naturally  fitted  for  almost  endless 
succession  of  sowings  and  gatherings  and  such  temporary 
unfitness  as  locally  occurs  is  easily  overcome  by  very 
simple  cultural  arts  and  provisions.  Still  there  are  best 
times  for  doing  things  for  specific  purposes  and  many  of 
these  can  only  be  learned  by  local  experience.  An  attempt 
will  be  made,  however,  to  give  hints  to  newcomers,  or  to 
the  many  who  have  not  essayed  vegetable  growing  and 
have  thus  neglected  glorious  opportunities,  which  will  en- 
able them  to  realize,  it  is  hoped,  some  directions  in  which 
promising  efforts  may  be  put  forth. 

Seasonable  Work  in  the  Garden. — In  view  of  the  fact 


OF   THE 

UNIVERSITY 

Of 


THE  PLANTING  SEASON.  i39 

already  emphasized  that  the  planting  season  extends 
throughout  the  year  and  is  regulated  by  local  conditions 
and  not  by  the  calendar,  it  follows  that  other  garden  work 
constantly  recurs,  and  it  would  be  a  hopeless  task  to  at- 
tempt to  specify  certain  times  at  which  certain  work 
should  be  done.  The  vegetable  grower  must  use  his  own 
powers  of  observation  and  common  sense,  and  not  ex- 
pect to  find  in  print  the  injunction  that  on  a  certain  day 
he  must  do,  a  certain  thing. 

It  may  be  possible  to  make  such  prescriptions  in  more 
steady-going  climates  but  in  our  diverse  local  climates, 
which  are  either  forcing  or  retarding,  according  to  locali- 
ties, and  according  to  times  of  the  year  in  the  same  lo- 
cality, it  is  impossible  to  say  just  when  a  crop  planted  at 
a  certain  time  should  be  hoed  or  cultivated,  trained  up  or 
gathered,  and  the  ground  cleared  up  for  other  uses.  All 
such  acts  will  be  omitted  from  our  California  garden  cal- 
endar. Let  it  be  understood  rather  that  the  grower  must 
be  always  on  the  alert  to  do  certain  things  without  sug- 
gestion from  any  one,  viz. : 

First :  Stir  the  ground  as  soon  as  it  will  take  tools  well 
after  the  young  plants  have  appeared  above  the  surface, 
and  thin  the  plants  in  the  row  to  allow  proper  space  for 
attaining  good  size. 

Second:  Continue  stirring  afterwards  whenever  the 
soil  works  well,  for  weed  killing  if  there  be  any ;  if  not, 
stir  the  surface  just  the  same. 

Third :  Continue  stirring  so  long  as  the  cultivator  does 
not  seriously  injure  the  plant  by  breaking  its  stems  and 
foliage,  and  then  use  the  hoe  carefully  to  prevent  the 
ground  becoming  compacted  near  the  stem  in  places  not 
reached  by  the  cultivator. 

Fourth :  Keep  the  condition  of  the  plant  constantly  in 
sight  and  thought,  to  train  or  trim  its  growth  to  attain 
best  results.  Such  treatment  for  each  plant  will  naturally 
be  noted  in  the  place  devoted  to  its  special  consideration 
later. 

Fifth :    Watch  for  the  attainment  of  such  degree  of  ma- 


140'  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES. 

turity  as  makes  each  plant  most  desirable  for  food  pur- 
poses. The  slack  gardener  is  apt  to  allow  his  vegetables 
to  become  stale  or  over-ripe  in  the  rows,  and  in  that  way 
miss  their  best  estate. 

Sixth :  Gather  promptly  and  dispose  of  each,  either  by 
eating  or  selling,  when  it  reaches  this  condition  and 
quickly  clear  away  the  remains  of  the  growth  for  stock 
feed  or  for  the  compost  heap.  Do  not  allow  the  plants  to 
stand  for  the  purpose  of  gathering  seed  from  the  culls 
which  are  rejected  at  picking.  Select  the  earliest  and 
best  specimens  for  seed  if  any  seed  is  to  be  saved.  It  is, 
however,  only  in  exceptional  cases  that  the  farm  gardener 
should  save  his  own  seed.  It  is  better  to  buy  up-to-date 
varieties  from  those  who  make  a  business  of  selection  and 
improvement  of  garden  varieties.  Keep  the  garden  al- 
ways clean  and  ready  for  something  else.  It  is  a  mistake 
to  let  the  garden  lie  neglected  until  the  time  for  a  spring 
revolution  and  upheaval,  like  that  which  Eastern  gard- 
eners are  forced  to  content  themselves  with.  Of  course, 
the  error  of  stirring  the  soil  when  too  wet  must  be  care- 
fully guarded  against,  but  there  is  much  beside  digging 
involved  in  gardening. 

Seventh :  Irrigate,  if  necessary,  and  work  the  soil  as 
soon  as  it  works  aright.  Do  not  lose  moisture  by  allowing 
the  surface  to  become  hard.  No  matter  whether  the 
ground  is  to  be  used  for  an  immediate  succession  or 
whether  it  is  to  lie  for  some  time,  break  up  the  surface 
and  make  it  fit  to  receive  water  or  retain  water,  as  the 
case  may  be. 

These  timely  and  important  acts  will  not  appear  in  our 
calendar  for  the  reasons  first  stated.  They  are  always  in 
order  in  California,  and  if  a  man  has  to  be  told  more  than 
once  to  do  them,  there  are  serious  doubts  of  his  ever  hav- 
ing been  called  to  be  a  vegetable  grower. 

CALIFORNIA  GARDEN  CALENDAR. 

As  appears  in  the  chapter  on  climate,  the  timeliness  of 
certain  operations  in  California  is  not  regarded  by  geo- 


CALIFORNIA  GARDEN  CALENDAR.  141 

graphy  nor  latitude,  but  by  topography  and  environment, 
by  moisture-conditions,  either  natural  or  acquired,  and  by 
the  beginning  and  ending  of  the  frost-free  period.  The 
broken  country  of  the  northwest  quarter  of  the  State,  and 
the  mountain  elevations  everywhere  which  are  liable  to 
snowfall,  constitute  regions  which  differ  from  the  Coast 
valley,  interior  valley  and  foothill  regions  both  north  and 
south,  and  are,  therefore,  to  a  certain  degree  out  of  our 
calculation,  though  an  effort  will  be  made  to  include  some 
recognition  of  their  practice.  The  outline  to  be  made  of 
timely  work  is  intended  to  cover  the  State  in  all  parts  ex- 
cept where  wintry  conditions  in  greater  or  less  degree  in- 
trude. 

Our  seasons,  shading  into  each  other  without  striking 
division  lines,  make  it  necessary  to  select  a  somewhat  ar- 
bitrary point  of  beginning  for  a  garden  calendar.  The 
point  midway  between  the  closing  of  one  rainy  season  and 
the  beginning  of  another  is,  by  virtue  of  its  drought-and- 
heat-effects  on  the  rainfall  garden,  and  its  heat-effects 
even  on  ground  kept  moist  by  irrigation  or  underflow,  the 
time  when  garden  growth  is  about  at  its  lowest  point.  It 
is  also  a  time  when  preparations  are  to  be  made  for  the 
earliest  sowing.  The  arrangement  is  somewhat  arbitrary, 
as  confessed  above,  but  it  accords  best  with  all  matters 
involved  to  look  upon  the  month  of  July  as  the  beginning 
of  the  California  year  in  vegetable  growing. 

JULY. 

On  ground  moistened  anew  by  underflow  from  rising 
rivers  or  by  percolation  from  irrigation  ditches  on  higher 
orchard  slopes,  or  on  land  cleared  of  an  earlier  crop,  irri- 
gated and  well  worked,  it  is  possible  to  plant  vegetables  in 
July  for  late  fall  or  winter  use.  String  beans,  carrots, 
corn,  parsnips,  potatoes,  salsify,  squashes,  turnips,  etc., 
will  all  come  on  rapidly  in  the  interior  heat,  if  adequate 
moisture  is  furnished  and  frosts  are  reasonably  late.  Mel- 
ons are  also  successfully  thus  sown  and  with  heat  enough 
will  mature  in  September  from  July  planting.  Near  the 


142  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES. 

Coast  or  in  the  interior,  with  shade,  cucumbers,  lettuce, 
radishes  and  other  salads  will  thrive.  Cabbage  and  cauli- 
flower seed  sown  in  proper  beds  or  boxes,  soon  gives  plants 
for  later  setting  which  will  mature  for  Christmas  and  on 
through  the  early  winter. 

AUGUST. 

Corn  and  potatoes  planted  in  August  may  still  have  time 
to  reach  satisfactory  condition  of  maturity,  except  where 
frosts  are  expected  early.  Cabbage  and  cauliflower  seed 
will  give  plants  for  proper  winter  succession ;  turnips  on 
irrigated  ground  will  also  give  winter  crop.  Onion  seed 
may  be  sown  for  sets.  August  is  a  sort  of  divide  in  gar- 
den work.  It  is  rather  late  to  sow  for  fall  use  and  rather 
soon  to  sow  for  winter  use,  and  still  August  planting  is 
practiced  by  many  where  local  conditions  take  kindly  to  it. 

SEPTEMBER. 

Planting  must  still  proceed  upon  moisture  by  irrigation, 
and  planting  for  early  winter  use  is  still  in  order.  Peas 
started  with  irrigation  and  carried  until  rainfall  is  ade- 
quate, will  be  ready  for  Christmas  in  regions  where  only 
light  frosts  occur,  for  peas  are  quite  hardy.  Cabbage  and 
cauliflower  should  be  sown  in  the  seed-bed  for  succession 
of  plants — in  some  places  they  grow  slowly  and  can  be 
taken  out  for  planting  until  February.  Beets  and  salsify 
will  start  for  early  summer  use,  and  potatoes  for  the  holi- 
days. Lettuce  and  onions  can  be  sown  in  place  or  plants 
may  be  grown  in  a  seed-bed  for  planting  out  after  the 
rains  come.  In  strictly  frostless  places,  string  beans,  egg- 
plant, and  tomatoes  are  planted  for  very  early  crop. 

OCTOBER. 

It  is  still  time  to  plant  cabbage,  spinach,  onions,  lettuce, 
and  turnips  for  mid-winter  and  spring  use.  Peas  of  early 
variety  will  still  make  the  Christmas  table  in  a  favorable 
locality.  Beans,  egg-plant,  and  tomatoes  are  still  sown  for 
early  crop  in  frostless  places. 


CALIFORNIA  GARDEN  CALENDAR.  143 

NOVEMBER. 

Still  plant  for  succession.  Peas,  lettuce,  cabbage,  onions, 
beets,  spinach,  salsify,  turnips.  The  Coast  valleys  are  now 
usually  moist  enough  to  carry  all  these  hardy  vegetables 
without  irrigation,  for  late  winter  and  early  spring  use. 
Asparagus  roots  are  in  shape  for  planting.  Potatoes, 
beans,  egg-plant  and  tomatoes  are  planted  in  frostless 
places  for  early  crop. 

DECEMBER. 

The  higher  lands  of  the  interior  valley  are  usually  ready 
for  the  rainfall  garden.  Beets,  cabbage,  cauliflower,  car- 
rots, lettuce,  onions,  peas,  radishes  and  turnips  are  hardy, 
though  some  roots  sown  at  this  time  will  in  some  places 
go  to  seed  in  the  spring  instead  of  enlarging.  Potatoes 
are  planted  on  slopes,  well  out  of  hard  frosts.  In  north- 
erly coast  valleys  the  soil  is  often  too  cold  and  wet  to 
make  seed  sowing  wise.  In  such  places  the  growth  gets  a 
poor  start.  This  depends  greatly,  however,  upon  the 
character  of  the  rainy  season  for  that  particular  year. 

JANUARY. 

On  warmer,  drier  valley  lands  in  regions  of  light  rain- 
fall or  on  protected  hillsides,  plantings  of  beets,  cabbage, 
carrots,  peas,  turnips,  lettuce  and  onions  are  usually  wise. 
In  colder  regions  lettuce  and  onions  and  radishes  are 
hardy,  and  thrive  if  raised  out  of  the  wet,  and  cabbage, 
cauliflower,  pepper,  celery,  tomato  seed  should  go  into 
seed-beds  to  grow  plants  for  later  planting  out.  It  is  the 
first  great  potato  planting  month  for  regions  of  light 
rainfall  or  on  warm,  well-drained  slopes  in  regions  of 
heavier  rains.  But  on  low  valley  lands  in  wet  regions, 
January  is  often  too  stormy  and  cold  for  open-air  work, 
as  has  just  been  said  of  December. 
FEBRUARY. 

February  is  the  great  planting  month,  for  everything 
but  the  very  tender  plants,  like  beans,  corn,  tomatoes, 
peppers,  the  squash  family,  etc.,  can  now  proceed  with  as- 


144  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES. 

surance  of  adequate  heat  and  moisture.  It  is  the  month 
for  the  dilatory  man  who  has  missed  his  earliest  oppor- 
tunities to  fill  the  ground  with  seed,  and  it  is  the  time 
when  plantings  in  small  frosty  and  rainy  valleys,  which 
have  been  deferred  because  the  ground  was  too  cold  and 
wet  to  start  seeds  and  plants  well,  may  be  confidently 
made.  Successions  and  rotations  are  in  order,  as  the  fall- 
planted  vegetables  are  cleared  away.  Early  small  plant- 
ings of  string-beans,  melons  and  cucumbers  will  often 
carry  through  or  can  be  easily  replanted  if  the  frost 
catches  them.  Potatoes  are  widely  planted  and  will  sel- 
dom be  killed,  though  they  may  be  cut  back,  except  on 
low  ground,  which  should  be  planted  later.  Chicory  is 
sown,  and  sowing  of  sugar  beets  as  a  field  crop  for  the 
factory,  begins  in  February,  on  the  warmer,  drier  lands. 

MARCH. 

Later  plantings  of  all  sorts  of  hardy  vegetables  for  suc- 
cession is  pursued.  The  venturesome  on  higher,  warmer 
lands  try  corn,  melons,  squashes,  tomatoes,  and  continue 
planting  beans.  Sugar  beets  are  largely  sown  for  factory 
use.  Sweet  potatoes  should  go  into  the  hot-bed  for  slip- 
ping. 

APRIL. 

April  is  another  month  for  succession  planting  of  hardy 
vegetables,  but  it  is  getting  late  except  where  moisture  is 
ample  and  late  showers  quite  certain.  Tender  plants  are 
out  of  serious  danger  except  in  especially  frosty  places. 
Beans  can  be  confidently  planted.  Peppers,  tomatoes,  egg- 
plant, sweet  potatoes,  and  other  growths  can  be  brought 
to  the  open  ground.  Corn,  melons  and  squashes  can  be 
s&fely  planted  as  field  crops.  The  season's  race  is  well 
along  in  its  last  quarter,  the  heat  and  drought  have  al- 
ready made  hay  and  are  ripening  the  grain. 

MAY. 

Everything  for  which  there  can  be  assured  ample  mois- 
ture can  still  be  planted  in  the  moderate  heat  of  the  Coast 


CALIFORNIA  GARDEN  CALENDAR.  145 

regions,  but  it  is  late  for  shallow-rooting  plants  to  take 
hold  in  the  interior  heat,  even  with  irrigation.  Heat-lov- 
ing plants,  like  watermelons,  corn,  sweet  potatoes,  etc., 
will  grow  grandly  with  moisture  enough.  On  the  Coast, 
Lima  beans,  sugar  beets  for  late  crop,  corn  and  roots  for 
fall  use  will  do  well  if  well  cultivated.  All  planting  now 
which  is  well  taken  care  of  will  carry  its  verdure  and  its 
crop  to  refresh  the  grower  in  the  midst  of  the  dry  season. 
It  is  a  time  to  seek  and  use  moist  land  or  to  count  on  soon 
employing  the  fullest  irrigation  facilities  the  place  affords. 

JUNE. 

June  completes  the  garden  year.  It  is  the  last  chance 
to  plant,  and  it  is  useless  to  plant  at  all  except  on  land 
moist  naturally  or  by  irrigation.  It  is  the  last  chance  to 
get  a  second  crop  on  land  which  has  given  produce.  In 
the  garden  clear  up  all  that  has  matured  of  the  winter 
plantings,  irrigate  well,  plow  and  quickly  fine  the  surface 
and  put  in  beans,  beets,  cabbage  plants,  corn,  melons,  po- 
tatoes, squash,  tomato  plants,  and  a  succession  of  small 
truck,  and  be  sure  that  they  do  not  lack  moisture,  or  their 
courses  will  be  short  and  unprofitable. 

TABULAR  SHOWINGS  OF  TIMES  OF  PLANTING. 

To  afford  the  reader  a  condensed  view  of  the  facts  noted 
in  the  foregoing  suggestions  for  the  months,  tabular  show- 
ings are  prepared.  These  are  not  made  from  theoretical 
generalizations,  but  are  prepared  from  records  of  actual 
practice  which  the  writer  has  been  collecting  for  the  last 
30  years.  It  would  be  easy  to  add  more  data  to  the  tables 
as  inferences  from  what  is  laid  down,  but  readers  can  do 
that  for  themselves.  It  is  beyond  question,  for  instance, 
that  a  vegetable  planted  in  May  and  July  could  also  be 
planted  in  June,  and  is  no  doubt  planted  in  June  in  actual 
practice.  But  to  present  tables  which  are  actual  and  not 
inferential,  only  affirmative  and  specific  cases  are  given 
place.  The  work  of  several  hundred  growers  is  condensed 
into  these  tables. 

Separate  showings  are  made  for  southern  California  and 


146  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES. 

for  the  valley  and  foothill  portions  of  the  upper  part  of  the 
State.  It  will  be  seen  that  they  strikingly  agree.  There 
are  practically  frostless  regions  near  the  coast  in  southern 
California  which  are  not  found  elsewhere  in  the  State, 
although  it  is  only  with  the  tenderest  growths  that  the 
difference  becomes  apparent.  Other  vegetables  take  about 
the  same  courses  in  early  regions,  both  north  and  south. 
Still  it  is  well  to  reduce  the  fact  to  a  set  of  records  such  as 
these  tables  embody. 

TIMES    FOR   PLANTING    CERTAIN    VEGETABLES    IN    VALLEY    AND    FOOTHILL 
REGIONS   OF   SOUTHERN   CALIFORNIA. 

,CJ 


Beans 

Beets 

Cabbage 

Carrots 

Caulifl( 

Celery 

Corn *       *     '..       *3     *3     * 

Cucumbers   .....      . .      *3      *       * 

Eggplant    *-     *2     *2 *       * 

Lettuce    *       *  *       *       *       *       *       *       *       * 

Melons    . .     *    •}.,'••?>*. *'      *'      * 

Onions     .........      ..  *       *       *       *       *       *       *       * 

Peas 'i  .'•.'.'  *       *       *       *       *       *       *       * 

Potatoes 

Potatoes,  sweet  ;C*    ^Ur.^.;':  *;. 

Radishes     *       *  *       * 

Salsify ..  *       * 

Spinach    ......     *       *  *       * 

Squash    *      

Tomatoes    *2      *: 

Turnips     *       * 

'On  irrigated  land. 

2Frostless  situations  near  southern  coast. 

3Taking  the  chances  of  occasional  frost  and  replanting  in  some 
places. 


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THE  FROST  FACTOR.  147 

TIMES    FOB    PLANTING    CERTAIN    VEGETABLES    IN    VALLEY    AND    FOOTHILL 
REGIONS  OF  CENTRAL  AND   NORTHERN  CALIFORNIA. 

till  I  III  III! 

Beans    * *  *  *  * 

Beets    * *       *       *  *  *  * 

Cabbage     *       *       *       *       *..       *       *       *  *  *.. 

Carrots    * *       *       *  *  *  * 

Cauliflower    ...     *     ..      ..• *       *       *  *  *  * 

Celery    ,.;    v  -*—  »>  -:,*       *  *  *  •• 

Corn    *     ..    >v  .-•,«.; '.,»-  .-*-v-'-i.*:  -V..«: /..<;•  V.  •  *  * 

Cucumbers    ....     *     . .     ......,,.' . .  *  *  * 

Eggplant    •  •"'•'•     •  •     " '•'  •"'••"  •'•.    ' •/•  •.• 

Lettuce    *       *       *       *       *       *       *       *       *  *  *  * 

Melons    *  •<&.  ;  '..     ^.."    ..     .;    \.    'i.-/..  *  *  * 

Onions    *       *       *       *       *       *       *  *  * 

Peas    *       *       *       *       *       *       *  *  *  .. 

Potatoes    *  .«•     ••  >'•       *******.. 

Potatoes,   sweet.   . . ' ' '•>  ;  -••     ••     ••    '.VI  ''..'.'.''*  *  *  * 

Radishes     *       *       *       *       *       *       *       *       *  *  *  * 

Salsify    *     ..     ..     .;     ..     .w     ..       *       *  *  ..  .. 

Spinach    *       *       * ..  ..  .. 

Squash    * *  *  * 

Tomatoes *  *  * 

Turnips    ..*       *..       *       *..       *       *       *  *  *  * 

4On  irrigated  or  naturally  moist  low  land. 

THE  FROST  FACTOR. 

The  intrusion  of  the  frost  period  is  a  local  limitation  of 
the  planting  season.  Each  vegetable  grower  should  keep 
records  of  frost  occurrence  for  his  own  guidance  in  future 
operations  and  for  the  public  benefit,  for  the  government 
weather  service  is  very  anxious  to  get  local  observations 
on  this  point. 

During  the  last  decade  the  San  Francisco  office  of  the 
U.  S.  Weather  Bureau  has  given  particular  attention  to 
frost  phenomena,  including  conditions  of  occurrence  and 
prevention,  and  the  publications  by  the  local  officer  in 
charge,  Prof.  Alexander  G.  McAdie,  comprise  the  best 
knowledge  on  the  subject. 

The  discussion  in  the  chapter  on  California  Climate  as 
Related  to  Vegetable  Growing  shows  that  weather  condi- 


148  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES. 

tions  are  everywhere  dependent  to  a  degree  on  local  to- 
pography and  environment,  even  though  there  are  regional 
characters  which  must  be  understood.  In  this  place  it  is 
fitting  to  emphasize  especially  the  dates  at  which  killing 
frosts  have  occurred  in  a  large  number  of  localities,  be- 
cause such  dates  are  seldom  accurately  remembered  even 
in  the  localities  concerned.  The  table  which  we  have  com- 
piled and  arranged  in  our  own  way,  according  to  districts, 
from  data  kindly  furnished  by  Prof.  McAdie,  should  be 
studied  with  the  following  points  in  view : 

First.  The  dates  represent  the  first  and  last  dates  of 
killing  frosts  in  each  place  during  a  decade.  In  most 
cases  probably  the  dates  are  not  in  the  same  year.  We 
wish  to  show  the  "worst  ever"  at  each  place. 

Second.  Obviously,  then,  frosts  at  such  dates  are  not 
to  be  often  expected,  and  planters  may  usually  take  the 
risk  of  planting  somewhat  earlier  and  having  tender  plants 
mature  somewhat  later,  as  will  be  discussed  in  the  next 
chapter.  At  the  same  time  large  plantings  for  a  main  or 
standard  crop  should  be  generally  held  back  for  the  local 
frost-free  period  which  the  dates  in  the  tables  supply  for 
each  place. 

Third.  Always  remember,  however,  that  there  may  be 
situations  adjacent  to  the  place  where  the  record  is  made 
in  which  frost  may  be  earlier  or  later,  or  both,  according 
to  the  variations  in  local  topography,  exposure,  etc.,  as 
explained  in  the  chapter  on  Climate.  There  are  also  a 
few  widely  separated  situations  which  may  be  considered 
almost,  if  not  quite,  frostless. 

Fourth.  The  tables  give  the  elevation  in  feet  above  sea 
level  in  each  case.  This  factor  does  influence  frost  occur- 
rence in  a  large  way,  but  local  frost  phenomena  are  often 
determined  by  the  relative  elevation  of  situations  in  the 
same  vicinity  and  by  other  conditions  of  topography 
affecting  the  movement  of  cold  air  and  counter  currents, 
perhaps,  of  warm  air. 

Fifth.  Thus  it  should  appear  that  after  all  the  writer 
can  do  to  help  the  reader  determine  what  his  planting 


THE  FROST  FACTOR. 


149 


practice  should  be  with  refenece  to  frost  occurrence,  it 
still  remains  with  the  latter  to  do  all  that  he  can  to  under- 
stand his  immedate  spot  of  land  through  the  teaching  of 
his  own  observation  and  experience. 


DATES  OF  SPRING  AND  FALL  KILLING  FROSTS,  1897  TO   1908. 


Location  and  county.  Elevation. 

UPPER  COAST  REGION. 

Crescent  City,  Del  Norte 50 

Eureka,  Humboldt 64 

Upper  Mattole,  Humboldt 244 

Ukiah,  Mendocino   620 

Fort  Bragg,  Mendocino 74 

Fort  Ross,  Sonoma 100 

Cloverdale,    Sonoma 340 

Santa  Rosa,  Sonoma 181 

Peachland,  Sonoma  220 

Sonoma,  Sonoma  30 

Calistoga,  Napa   363 

Napa,  Napa  60 

Upper  Lake,  Lake. . : 1350 

SACRAMENTO  VALLEY  AND 
FOOTHILLS. 

Redding,  Shasta 552 

Red  Bluff,  Tehama 307 

Rosewood,  Tehama  865 

Corning,  Tehama 277 

Chico,  Butte   193 

Durham,  Butte  160 

Biggs,  Butte   98 

Oroville,  Butte   250 

Palermo,  Butte  213 

Fruto,  Glenn  624 

Willows,  Glenn 136 

Dunnigan,   Yolo 65 

Guinda,  Yolo  350 

Woodland,  Yolo   63 

Davis,  Yolo   51 

Vacaville,  Solano  175 

Elmira,  Solano  75 

Suisun,  Solano  20 

Sacramento,  Sacramento 35 

Folsom,  Sacramento  252 

Wheatland,  Yuba 84 

Auburn,   Placer    1360 

Colfax,  Placer 2421 

Eldorado,  Eldorado  1609 

Placerville,  Eldorado   1820 

Georgetown,  Eldorado    2650 

Nevada  City,  Nevada 2580 

North  Bloomfield,  Nevada 3200 

Jackson,  Amador 1900 


Latest 
spring. 

June  19 

May  1 

Apr.  26 

May  2 

Mar.  18 

Mar.  21 

Mar.  25 

May  10 

Apr.  11 

Apr.  12 

May  1 

Mar.  30 

Apr.  23 


Earliest 
autumn. 

Sept.  30 

Nov.  7 

Oct.  20 

Oct.  16 

Nov.  5 

Dec.  18 

Nov.  2 

Oct.  29 

Oct.  18 

Dec.  2 

Oct.  1 

Nov.  7 

Sept.  29 


May 

1 

Oct. 

17 

Apr. 

19 

.  Nov. 

7 

Apr. 

12 

Oct. 

4 

Mar. 

26 

Nov. 

2 

Apr. 

10 

Nov. 

6 

Apr. 

4 

Oct. 

22 

May 

10 

Nov. 

23 

Apr. 

30 

Nov. 

23 

Apr. 

7 

Nov. 

14 

Apr. 

4 

Nov. 

23 

Apr. 

26 

Nov. 

28 

Feb. 

25 

Nov. 

24 

May 

1 

Nov. 

16 

Apr. 

26 

Nov. 

2G 

Apr. 

4 

Oct. 

22 

Apr. 

4 

Nov. 

24 

Apr. 

4 

Oct. 

26 

Apr. 

4 

Nov. 

13 

Apr. 

26 

Oct. 

17 

Apr. 

11 

Nov. 

24 

Apr. 

9 

Nov. 

7 

May 

2 

Oct. 

1.5 

May 

1 

Dec. 

5 

Apr. 

26 

Dec. 

20 

Apr. 

28 

Nov. 

28 

May 

1 

Oct. 

If) 

May 

30 

Sept. 

29 

May 

22 

Oct. 

1 

Apr. 

28 

Oct. 

14 

150  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES. 


CENTRAL  COAST  REGION. 

San  Francisco,  San  Francisco 207  Mar.   27  Dec.    18 

Oakland,  Alameda 36  Feb.    15  Dec.    15 

Berkeley,  Alameda   320  Feb.    19  Dec.    14 

Niles,  Alameda 87  Apr.    29  Oct.     17 

San  Leandro,  Alameda 50  Mar.   28  Nov.    24 

Livermore,  Alameda 485  Apr.    12  Nov.      9 

Menlo  Park,  San  Mateo 64  Feb.    13  Dec.    18 

San  Jose,  Santa  Clara 95  Apr.      9  Oct.     22 

Santa  Clara,  Santa  Clara 90  Apr.      9  Nov.    24 

Los  Gatos,  Santa  Clara 600  Mar.     8  Dec.      9 

Gilroy,  Santa  Clara 193  May    11  Nov.      6 

Santa  Cruz,  Santa  Cruz 20  Apr.      1  Nov.    23 

Laurel,  Santa  Cruz  910  Mar.   12  Oct.     24 

Aptos,    Santa  Cruz 102  Mar.    31  Oct.     31 

Watsonville,  Santa  Cruz 23  Apr.      8  Sept.  22 

Hollister,  San  Benito 284  Apr.    22  Oct.     17 

Salinas,  Monterey  40  Apr.      1  Nov.    21 

Soledad,  Monterey    183  Feb.    13  Nov.    30 

San  Ardo,  Monterey 236  Apr.    10  Dec.      9 

San  Miguel,  San  Luis  Obispo 616  Mar.      8  Oct.     22 

Paso  Robles,  San  Luis  Obispo 800  Apr.    26  Oct.     30 

San  Luis  Obispo,  San  Luis  Obispo.  201  May    18  Oct.     18 

SAN  JOAQUIN  VALLEY  AND 
FOOTHILLS. 

Antioch,  Contra  Costa 46  Feb.      1  Dec.      5 

Lodi,  San  Joaquin 35  Apr.      9  Oct.     18 

Tracy,  San  Joaquin 64  Mar.   14  Nov.    24 

Milton,    Calaveras 660  Apr.      7  Nov.    29 

Mokelumne,  Calaveras 1550  Apr.    28  Nov.    17 

West  Point,  Calaveras 2326  June  15  Oct.       7 

Jackson,  Amador 1900  Apr.    28  Oct.     14 

Merced,  Merced    173  Mar.   28  Nov.    28 

Fresno,  Fresno   293  Mar.    31  Nov.    11 

Selma,   Fresno    311  Mar.    31  Oct.     20 

Kingsburg,   Fresno    301  Apr.    28  Dec.    23 

Hanford,  Kings   249  Apr.    29  Oct.     25 

Visalia,  Tulare  334  Apr.    11  Nov.    16 

Lemon  Cove,  Tulare 600  Feb.    16  Dec.      9 

Porterville,  Tulare    461  Mar.   10  Nov.    26 

Tulare,  Tulare   274  Apr.    11  Oct.     20 

Dinuba,   Tulare    335  May      2  Nov.    27 

SOUTHERN  CALIFORNIA. 

Santa  Barbara,  Santa  Barbara 130  Mar.    18  Nov.    30 

Santa  Paula,  Ventura .350  Feb.    16  Dec.    12 

Los  Angeles,  Los  Angeles 293  Mar.     9  Dec.    13 

Anaheim,  Orange  134  Apr.    17  Dec.    12 

Riverside,  Riverside  851  Apr.      2  Nov;    12 

San  Jacinto,  Riverside 1550  Apr.      8  Nov.    25 

Redlands,  San  Bernardino 1352  Apr.      9  Nov.    24 

Escondido,  San  Diego 657  Mar.    18  Dec.       7 

Poway,  San  Diego 460  Feb.    15  Nov.    18 

El  Cajon,  San   Diego 482  Mar.    14  Nov.    19 

Campo,   San   Diego 2543  June  17  Sept.  17 


THE  FROST  FACTOR.  151 

MOUNTAIN  REGIONS. 

Sisson,  Siskiyou 3555  July  6  Sept.  13 

Cedarville,   Modoc 4675  June  24  Aug.  30 

Susanville,    Lassen 4195  June  22  Sept.  8 

Laporte,  Plumas    5000  July  6  Sept.  6 

Greenville,  Plumas 3600  June  11  Aug.  20 

Boca,  Nevada  5531  May  1  Oct.  2 

Summerdale,   Mariposa    5270  June  15  Sept.  25 

Lick  Observatory,  Santa  Clara 4209  May  25  Oct.  2 

Tehachapi,  Kern    3964  Apr.  11  Nov.  20 

Cuyamaca,  San  Diego 4543  July  11  Sept.  5 

The  general  reader,  after  studying  the  foregoing  data, 
may  conclude  that  in  nearly  all  the  valley  districts  of 
California  there  is  little  difference  in  the  length  of  the 
absolute-  frost-free  period;  also  that  elevation  influences 
temperature  similarly  in  all  parts  of  the  State.  At  eleva- 
tions below  1500  feet,  which  is  the  point  at  which  foothills 
begin  to  shade  into  mountains,  there  are  about  two-thirds 
of  the  whole  year  in  which  even  the  tenderest  vegetation 
may  be  considered  practically  safe  from  injury  from  frost, 
and  particular  situations  in  which  the  frost-free  period 
is  even  longer.  On  the  other  hand,  there  are  mountain 
valleys,  with  good  soil  and  sunshine  and  ample  total  heat 
for  vegetables,  in  which  tender  plants  must  be  always  pro- 
tected, because  frost  may  occur  every  month  in  the  year. 

The  Endurance  of  Different  Vegetables. — The  degree  of 
cold  which  plants  will  survive  depends  upon  several  con- 
siderations and  conditions,  involving  state  of  air,  moisture 
and  of  the  plant  itself,  which  makes  it  impossible  to  fix  the 
injury  point  of  a  plant  definitely.  There  is.  however,  prac- 
tical value  in  the  following  compilation  made  from  reports 
by  Pacific  Coast  growers  as  to  the  effect  of  our  style  of 
low  temperatures,  the  temperatures  being  given  as  nearly 
as  possible  those  in  contact  with  the  plant  itself : 

TEMPERATURE  AT  WHICH   CERTAIN   PLANTS  ARE  LIABLE  TO  RECEIVE 
INJURY   FROM   FROSTS. 

Degrees  Degrees 

Plant.                                  Fahr.  Plant.                                  Fahr. 

Asparagus   29      Beans    31 

Cantaloupes    32      Celery    28 

Cucumbers    32      Onions    28 

Potatoes   30      Sweet  Potatoes    31 

Spinach    21      Squash    31 

Turnips    26  Watermelons    .                        .   31 


152  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES. 

SUCCESSIONS  AND  ROTATIONS  IN  CALIFORNIA 
GARDENS. 

Naturally,  an  all-the-year  growing  season  suggests  con- 
stant use  of  the  ground  and  the  possibility  of  turning  the 
soil  over  several  times  in  the  course  of  the  year.  This  can 
be  done  by  quick  revolution,  like  the  following : 

Where  water  is  handy,  two,  three,  or  even  four  crops 
can  be  grown  on  the  same  ground  in  the  year.  Start  April 
1  and  sow  the  plot  to  lettuce,  and  with  proper  cultivation 
it  will  mature  in  two  months.  Resow  with  turnip-radish, 
which  is  a  good  summer  variety.  These  will  be  fit  to  use 
in  three  weeks,  or  by  the  first  week  of  July,  when  the 
ground  will  be  ready  for  late  cucumbers,  which  will  occupy 
the  ground  until  the  first  frost,  or  till  nights  become  too 
cold  for  them  to  fruit.  Now  plant  to  carrots,  beets,  or 
onion  sets,  and  any  of  them  will  be  ready  for  use  in  Febru- 
ary or  March.  Here  we  have  four  crops  within  the  twelve 
months,  and  no  two  of  them  occupying  the  ground  at  the 
same  time.  There  are  other  combinations  that  would  do 
as  well. 

Though  this  rapid  work  is  quite  feasible,  as  shown,  and 
many  plants  can  enter  into  such  combinations,  the  two- 
crop  plan  will  probably  be  as  fast  movement  as  most  farm 
gardeners  will  keep  up  with,  and  that  consists  in  fall  sow- 
ing of  hardy  vegetables  for  winter  and  spring  use,  fol- 
lowed by  spring  planting  of  tender  vegetables  for  summer 
and  fall  use.  Occasionally  there  will  be  intervals  in  this 
rotation  for  a  third  or  catch  crop  of  lettuce,  radish,  etc., 
which  takes  a  very  short  time.  This  will  be  a  vast  im- 
provement on  the  present  popular  conception  of  garden- 
ing possibilities,  and  if  the  hint  of  a  fall  crop  of  tender 
vegetables  like  melons,  beans,  corn,  etc.,  planted  in  July 
to  come  on  fast  in  the  heat,  followed  by  fall  planting  of 
the  hardy  list  for  winter  use,  these  two  crops  will  be 
gained  before  the  outbreak  of  the  usual  * '  garden  fever, ' ' 
which  rallies  all  garden  forces  in  February  and  March. 
The  agencies  to  demonstrate  this  broader  conception  of 
our  gardening  possibilities  are  Will  and  Work  and  Water, 


SUCCESSIONS  AND  ROTATIONS.  153 

to  which  allusion  is  made  in  the  chapter  on  Farmer's 
Gardens  in  California. 

Family  Garden  Programmes. — It  will  surprise  anyone 
who  carries  out  rapid  succession  of  plantings  to  see  how 
much  desirable  food  can  be  secured  from  a  very  small 
area.  An  enthusiastic  farm  gardener  of  Lakeside,  San 
Diego  county,  says  that  his  garden  of  50  feet  square  sup- 
plies enough  vegetables,  excepting  potatoes,  for  a  large 
family,  and  requires  less  than  half  a  day's  attention  dur- 
ing a  week.  He  grows  the  following  vegetables,  planting 
each  month  in  the  year  as  follows : 

January — After  the  20th,  turnips,  cabbage  seed,  carrots, 
lettuce,  peas. 

February — Radishes,  beets,  salsify,  spinach,  onion  seed 
or  sets. 

March — Potatoes  (in  field),  turnips,  cabbage,  lettuce, 
peas,  cabbage  plants. 

April — Cucumbers,  watermelons,  muskmelons,  squashes, 
tomato  plants,  radishes,  beets,  salsify,  corn,  beans,  sweet 
potatoes,  cabbage  seed. 

May — Carrots,  lettuce,  peas,  onion  seed  or  sets. 

June — Radishes,  beets,  beans,  corn,  salsify,  cabbage 
plants. 

July — Carrots,  lettuce,  cabbage  seed. 

August — Potatoes  (in  field),  corn,  beans,  radishes. 

September — Cabbage  plants,  peas,  turnips,  salsify,  and 
carrots. 

October — Beets,  beans,  onion  sets,  lettuce. 

November — Turnips,  spinach,  salsify. 

December — Winter  radishes,  peas,  lettuce. 

He  has  the  advantage  of  a  very  short  period  of  frosts, 
and  light  ones  at  that.  He  plants  in  rows  18  inches  apart, 
irrigates  his  garden  every  10  days  in  trenches  and  culti- 
vates twice  a  week.  In  favorable  seasons  he  has  natural 
moisture  from  November  to  April  or  May.  If  the  rainfall 
is  light  he  cultivates  twice  a  week. 

Another  arrangement  for  succession  is  that  practiced  by 
a  vineyardist  in  the  Santa  Cruz  mountains,  who  grows 


154  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES. 

vegetables  in  his  vineyard.  He  plows  one  furrow  in  the 
center,  between  the  vines,  manured  in  the  furrow  and  cov- 
ered with  a  furrow  plowed  each  side.  The  bed  thus  formed 
is  planted  in  November  with  a  row,  thickly  sown,  of  Am- 
erican Wonder  peas,  covered  with  the  rake,  making  a 
smooth  place  where,  about  four  inches  from  the  peas  are 
planted  cabbage,  Chinese  Rose  Winter  radishes,  onions, 
lettuce  and  turnip  seed,  mixed.  Other  sowings,  adding 
carrots,  beans,  etc.,  are  made,  according  to  the  weather, 
until  May.  In  February  he  gathers  radishes  and  lettuce ; 
in  March,  peas.  He  sells  or  gives  away  bushels  of  lettuce 
and  radishes,  and  has  enough  to  supply  a  big  family  from 
March  1  to  July.  As  late  as  November  he  gathers  beets, 
carrots,  turnips  and  string  beans.  He  has  the  advantage 
of  a  larger  winter  rainfall,  and  conserves  moisture  by  cul- 
tivating between  the  rows  every  week  in  dry  weather. 


CHAPTER  XI. 
PROPAGATION. 

From  what  has  been  said  of  the  favoring  conditions  in 
California  for  open  air  work  and  freedom  from  low  tem- 
peratures, it  may  be  rightly  inferred  that  the  higher  arts 
of  propagation  involving  the  use  of  acres  of  glass  and  the 
most  approved  heating  devices,  are  not  to  be  found  in 
California.  The  forcing  of  vegetables  which  is  now  com- 
manding such  wide  effort  and  investment  at  the  East  is 
only  undertaken  to  a  limited  extent  and  although  it  is  in- 
creasing with  our  advance  in  population  and  wealth,  it 
will  always  be  menaced  by  the  open  air  work,  both  in  av- 
erage situations  and  in  frostless  localities  which  are,  at 
present,  only  worked  up  to  a  fraction  of  their  capacity. 
Forcing  is,  however,  accomplished  with  much  less  expen- 
sive structures  and  heating  arrangements  than  at  the  East, 
because  only  slight  drops  in  temperature  are  to  be  over- 
come. We  have  also  a  decided  advantage  in  the  large  per- 
centage of  winter  sunshine.  Forcing  is,  therefore,  rela- 
tively cheaper  than  in  wintry  regions  and  there  may  be, 
ere  long,  an  important  industry.  Of  course  the  same  gen- 
eral conditions  which  favor  forcing  with  us  also  makes 
elaborate  and  expensive  arrangements  for  growing  plants 
for  subsequent  planting  out,  unnecessary.  Not  only  do 
hot-beds  of  the  scantiest  construction  and  covering  answer 
local  purposes,  but  even  their  heating  materials  have  to  be 
toned  down  by  more  slowly  fermenting  intermixtures  and 
by  freer  entrance  of  air,  lest  the  growths  be  over-forced. 
Often,  as  will  be  described  presently,  a  little  bottom  heat, 
without  close  covering  above,  is  all  that  conditions  require 
to  bring  forward  and  protect  tender  seedlings  until  it  is 
safe  for  them  to  take  their  chances  under  kind  skies. 


156  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES. 

GROWTH  FROM  SEED  IN  OPEN  GROUND. 

Adequate  heat  and  moisture  are  essential  to  germina- 
tion and  subsequent  growth.  The  preceding  chapter  has 
shown  at  what  times  these  factors  are  present  in  California 
soil,  either  by  nature  or  artifice  of  the  planter.  Heat  is 
always  adequate  for  the  germination  of  the  seed  of  com- 
mon vegetables,  in  well-drained  surface  soil  in  the  Cali- 
fornia valley  regions.  Even  in  our  frosty  weather,  the 
day  temperature  of  the  soil  is  adequate  for  germination 
except,  perhaps,  during  the  colder  storms  and  seldom  does 
our  rain  have  too  low  a  temperature.  Even  in  this  it  is 
not  so  much  the  matter  of  germination  as  of  conditions 
inhospitable  to  the  subsequent  growrth  of  the  germs.  It 
makes  little  practical  difference,  perhaps,  whether  the 
seed  is  killed  or  the  germ  perishes  after  starting.  But  the 
death  of  either  seed  or  germ  is  more  often  due  to  moisture 
lack  or  excess,  than  to  temperature  conditions.  For  this 
reason  a  sowing  may  go  for  naught  if  seeding  is  done  in 
the  fall  without  thorough  moistening  of  the  soil  by  irriga- 
tion or  rainfall,  or  the  same  disappointment  may  follow 
sowing  even  seed  of  hardy  plants  in  certain  localities  in 
December  and  January  in  years  of  heavy  rainfall.  For 
these  reasons  it  is  all-important  that  the  vegetable  grower 
should  carefully  observe  his  local  conditions  of  soil  heat 
and  moisture  and  arrive  at  proper  deductions  from  his 
own  experience  as  to  what  acts  he  should  perform  under 
his  ruling  local  conditions  and  the  peculiar  phases  of  the 
weather  of  the  particular  year  in  which  he  is  acting.  And 
then  a  vegetable  grower,  in  garden  practice,  which  in- 
volves succession  of  small  areas,  must  be  enterprisingly 
venturesome.  He  must  take  some  chances  of  losing  a  sow- 
ing or  planting  and  of  renewing  it,  and  he  should  always 
keep  adequate  supplies  of  seeds  or  seedlings  at  hand.  It 
is  a  great  deal  better  to  lose  a  sowing  than  to  set  up  some 
arbitrary  dead-sure  date  for  sowing;  for  with  such  a 
policy  he  will  never  have  anything  early,  and  perhaps 
never  anything  profitable.  Field  work  for  staple  vege- 


GROWTH  FROM  SEED  IN  OPEN  GROUND.  157 

tables  is  another  proposition,  but  field  work  for  shipment 
of  early  stuff  is  always  attended  by  some  risk,  for  the 
grower  has  to  venture  everything  on  doing  the  best  he  can 
to  be  safe  and  early,  but  to  be  early  at  any  rate. 

Although  this  is  true,  it  must  always  be  remembered 
that  nothing  is  gained  in  working  the  soil  or  sowing  the 
seed  when  the  soil  is  not  in  condition  to  work  well.  Some 
results  of  this  bad  practice  have  been  mentioned  in  other 
connections  and  they  are  deplorable,  especially  in  the 
heavier  soils.  It  is  especially  an  error  of  judgment  in  seed 
sowing  to  suppose  that  any  time  can  be  gained  by  sowing 
early  upon  an  unfit  seed  bed.  Even  if  a  fair  stand  should 
be  secured  there  will  be  handicaps  upon  the  plants  all 
through  their  course,  and  a  somewhat  later  planting  with 
the  soil  in  good  condition  will  probably  surpass  them  both 
in  time  and  quality. 

There  is  often  advantage  in  soaking  seed  overnight  in 
tepid  water.  The  lighter  the  soil  and  the  later  the  sowing 
the  greater  benefit  will  accrue  from  this  method  of  hasten- 
ing germination.  When  the  wet  seed  is  difficult  to  handle, 
or  when  it  is  to  be  used  with  a  seed-drill,  sift  some  fine 
ashes  over  the  seed.  This  will  take  up  the  surface  mois- 
ture and  allow  them  to  run  through  the  drill  easily. 

Arranging  Moisture  Conditions  for  Germination. — In 
addition  to  the  greater  undertakings  described  in  the 
chapters  on  irrigation  and  drainage,  there  are  little  acts 
which  are  of  the  utmost  importance  in  securing  moisture 
conditions  favorable  to  germination  and  growth. 

First:  Seed  covering.  Darkness  is  favorable  to  ger- 
mination of  most  seeds,  but  covering  is  primarily  for  two 
other  purposes.  One  is  to  assist  the  seedling  in  its  anchor- 
age and  root  penetration,  but  the  more  important  is  to 
insure  it  moisture.  There  can  be  no  positive  rule  for  depth 
of  sowing.  Five  times  the  diameter  of  the  seed  might  do 
at  the  best  of  the  season  in  the  best  of  garden  soil,  but  this 
depth  would  be  too  great  for  some  seeds  in  some  soils  in 
the  rainy  season  and  far  too  shallow  for  the  same  seed  and 
soil  in  the  dry  season.  On  all  soils  the  rule  must  be  shal- 


158  ,       CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES. 

low  sowing,  if  large  rainfall  is  characteristic  of  the  region  : 
deep  sowing  if  scant  rainfall  is  to  be  expected:  shallow 
sowing  early  in  the  rainy  season :  deep  sowing  near  its 
close:  shallow  sowing  on  the  heavier  soils:  deep  sowing 
on  the  lighter  soils.  Late  in  the  season  the  surface  layer 
which  is  air  dried  in  spite  of  stirring,  does  not  count  as 
depth  at  all.  It  must  be  brushed  aside  and  the  seed  sown 
in  the  moist  layer  beneath  whether  the  sowing  is  done  by 
hand  or  with  a  seed  drill.  Later  cultivation  will  level  the 
soil  back  around  the  plant  stem  to  assist  in  retaining  mois- 
ture below.  Conforming  to  this  condition,  the  larger  sum- 
mer-sown seeds  should  be  sown  in  the  light  soil  of  the 
interior  valleys  at  four  to  six  inches  deep — twice  or  three 
times  the  depth  prescribed  for  the  seed  in  humid  climates 
or  in  the  humid  side  of  our  own  climate.  Seeds  sown  in 
hills  can  stand  deep  planting  better  than  when  sown 
singly,  as  they  seem  to  join  their  strength  in  uplifting  the 
weight  of  soil  above  them. 

Second:  Soil  firming.  This  is  another  act  which  aids 
the  seed  in  other  ways,  but  is  primarily  for  moisture  furn- 
ishing. A  seed  thrown  into  a  loose  surface  layer  may  ger- 
minate and  perish  for  lack  of  moisture  and  soil-contact  or 
it  may  lie  unquickened  until  a  footstep  or  a  shower  com- 
pacts the  earth  about  it.  It  may  thus  lie  half  a  year  in 
California.  Many  amateurs  are  much  too  }dnd  in  their 
intent  and  too  cruel  in  their  method,  by  making  the  sur- 
face as  loose  as  possible  and  then  gently  placing  the  seed 
in  the  loose  layer.  It  is  better  to  jump  on  it  with  both 
feet.  Whether  it  be  done  by  direct  tramping  or  by  tramp- 
ing a  narrow  board  placed  upon  the  sown  row,  or  tramped 
down  with  a  block  with  a  long  handle,  or  by  using  the 
garden  or  field  roller,  or  by  flat  slaps  with  the  back  of  the 
planting  hoe,  it  matters  not;  it  is  only  essential  that  the 
firming  of  the  inclosing  layer  should  be  given  unless  im- 
mediate water  settling  of  the  ground  is  anticipated.  And 
this  firming  is  conditioned  in  degree  upon  soil  and  season 
just  as  depth  of  covering  is,  viz. :  light  soil  or  late  in 
season,  heaviest  firming;  heavier  soil  or  early  in  season, 


GROWTH  FROM  SEED  IN  OPEN  GROUND.  159 

lighter  firming.  The  reason  for  firming  is  the  restoration 
of  capillarity  to  the  loose  layer,  consequently  adequate 
moisture  supply  to  the  germinating  seed.  But  when  this 
capillarity  has  served  its  purpose  and  the  root  has  pene- 
trated the  permanently  moist  layers  below,  this  capillarity 
must  be  destroyed  by  cultivation  and  the  surface  layer 
again  loosened  so  that  it  will  not  transmit  moisture.  There- 
fore, as  prescribed  in  the  chapter  on  Cultivation,  the  hoe 
or  cultivator  must  be  started  as  soon  as  the  young  plants 
can  be  seen,  and  in  some  larger  seeds  where  the  firmed 
layer  has  been  crusted  by  a  shower  a  light  harrowing  or 
raking  may  be  desirable  to  release  the  shoots  from  the  too 
compact  covering  which  has  come  over  them. 

Third :  Soil  opening.  The  converse  of  firming  the  soil 
about  the  seed  is  drying  of  the  surface  soil  when  unex- 
pectedly heavy  rains  have  come  and  the  water  does  not 
percolate  rapidly  enough  to  bring  the  surface  layer  into 
good  condition  for  growth.  In  such  an  event  seed  can 
often  be  saved  from  rotting  by  the  light  raking  or  har- 
rowing or  cutting  with  a  disc,  to  allow  the  air  to  assist 
drainage  in  relieving  the  surface  layer  of  its  excess.  The 
wisdom  of  this  course  is  always  conditioned  upon  the 
character  of  the  soil.  A  sticky  soil  would  be  more  harmed 
than  the  seed  would  be  helped  by  it. 

Fourth :  Mulching.  The  use  of  a  light  mulch  of  chaff 
or  corral-scrapings  or  rotten  straw  or  other  fine,  loose 
material  is  of  value  in  garden  practice  of  it  does  not  occa- 
sion too  great  cost  or  labor  to  procure  or  prepare  it.  The 
larger  the  seed  the  thicker  the  layer  may  safely  be,  and 
with  the  mulch,  shallower  planting,  and  probably  quicker 
germination,  is  possible.  The  mulch  lessens  evaporation 
from  the  surface  and  thus  gives  the  seed  a  surer  supply; 
it  also  prevents  puddling  of  the  soil  surface  by  pelting 
rain  drops  and  keeps  the  particles  both  moist  and  loose 
for  the  thrust  of  the  shoot.  A  mulch  also  makes  it  much 
safer  to  sprinkle  the  bed  if  rains  delay.  In  garden  prac- 
tice it  can  hardly  be  too  highly  commended.  On  heavy 


160  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES. 

soils  sawdust  or  sand  can  be  used  for  this  purpose  if  they 
are  the  most  available  materials. 

Fifth :  Irrigation.  Starting  seeds  by  irrigation  on  soil 
that  has  good  capillarity  and  lateral  percolation  (or 
"seeps  well"  as  the  common  phase  is)  releases  one  from 
several  of  the  injunctions  just  laid  down.  The  covering 
should  be  shallow,  as  the  moisture  will  rise  to  the  surface ; 
no  firming  needs  to  be  done,  for  the  water  will  settle  the 
soil,  and  when  the  moisture  is  ample,  stopping  the  supply 
will  quickly  allow  the  escape  of  the  surplus.  It  may 
sometimes  be  desirable  to  use  a  light  mulch  to  protect  the 
surface  from  baking  and  give  the  seedlings  a  few  days' 
more  growth  before  it  is  necessary  to  stir  the  surface. 
Seed  starting  in  this  way  with  the  raised  beds  and  perma- 
nent ditches  and  the  ridge  irrigation  system,  all  of  which 
are  described  in  the  chapter  on  Irrigation,  is  very  satis- 
factory. The  application  of  it  to  various  vegetables  will 
be  given  in  the  treatment  of  each.  Where  the  seeds  are 
to  be  started  by  the  furrow  system  on  land  that  will  draw 
water  well  laterally,  the  seed  can  be  sown  in  shallow 
trenches,  leaving  the  seeds  barely  covered.  Then  irrigate 
by  turning  water  into  shallow  irrigation  trenches  made 
some  twelve  or  fifteen  feet  apart.  Let  the  water  soak 
through  and  completely  moisten  the  surface  until  it  has 
spread  across  all  the  seed  trenches,  and  until  the  little 
clods  are  broken  down  and  dissolved.  The  seeds  are  thus 
well  covered  and  enabled  to  sprout  and  come  up  before 
the  soil  is  dried  out.  Subsequent  cultivation  levels  the 
ground,  giving  the  seedlings  sufficient  depth  of  covering 
and  new  furrows  are  plowed  for  later  irrigations.  This 
is  only  one  of  many  ways  by  which  seeds  can  be  started  by 
irrigation. 

GROWTH  FROM  SEED  UNDER  COVER. 

This  broad  title  is  used  to  include  about  all  that  is  done 
in  California  except  under  the  sky  cover.  In  the  chapters 
on  the  different  vegetables,  which  will  follow,  there  will 
be  mentioned  special  propagating  methods  employed  with 


GROWING  SEEDS  IN  BOXES.  161 

each,  but  in  this  place  a  few  protecting  and  promoting 
arrangements  will  be  described  for  the  benefit  of  begin- 
ners in  garden  work. 

Seed  Boxes. — Seed  boxes  are  the  simplest  arrangement 
for  starting  seedlings  for  subsequent  planting  out  and -in 
most  amateur  gardening  in  this  climate  they  will  com- 
prise about  all  that  is  necessary  in  the  way  of  construc- 
tion, because,  as  will  be  seen  later,  it  is  very  easy  to  give 
them  a  little  bottom  heat  if  the  grower  desires,  but  they 
can  be  largely  used  without  any.  The  chief  advantages  of 
starting  seedlings  in  boxes  instead  of  the  open  ground  are 
the  ease  which  the  seed  boxes  can  be  carried  under  pro- 
tection from  cold,  beating  rains  or  frosts,  or  protected 
from  hot,  drying  winds  or  too  intense  sun  heat,  and  the 
convenience  with  which  moisture  conditions  can  be  regu- 
lated by  covering  and  light  sprinkling. 

There  are  no  particular  dimensions  to  be  observed  in 
making  seed  boxes,  except  that  they  should  not  be  too 
large  to  be  easily  lifted  and  carried  with  their  contents.  The 
cases  which  inclose  two  five-gallon  cans  of  coal  oil,  sawed 
in  two  lengthwise  so  as  to  make  two  wide,  shallow  boxes, 
serve  an  excellent  purpose.  It  is  more  convenient  to  have 
all  the  boxes  of  the  same  size  than  to  use  odd  sizes,  in  case 
it  may  be  desired  to  group  the  boxes  in  a  hot-bed  or  other- 
wise for  heat  and  covering.  Be  sure  that  the  bottom  has 
ample  openings  for  drainage — either  cracks  or  bored  holes. 
The  soil-layer  in  the  boxes  should  not  exceed  three  inches 
in  depth.  In  ordinary  amateur  practice  a  good  soil  for 
these  boxes  can  be  made  by  taking  good  rich  garden  soil 
as  a  basis.  Add  sand  and,  if  possible,  the  light  mold  from 
under  an  old  straw  stack,  leaf  mold,  finely  powdered 
rotted  manure,  or  something  similar,  until  you  have  a  rich, 
friable  soil.  No  definite  rule  can  be  given  for  mixing, 
except  that  the  prepared  soil  should  hold  moisture  well, 
have  no  tendency  to  cake,  and  never  crack  in  the  sun. 

Fill  the  boxes,  and,  with  a  small  board,  press  the  soil 
closely  and  evenly,  so  that  it  will  retain  moisture.  The 
seeds  should  then  be  sown  quickly  and  evenly  over  the 


162  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES. 

surface  or  in  lines,  and  pressed  down  by  a  smooth  board 
into  the  soil,  so  that  the  seed,  be  it  large  or  small,  will 
form  a  level  surface  with  the  soil.  This  being  done,  the 
same  prepared  soil  should  be  sifted  evenly  over  the  top, 
just  enough  to  cover  the  seed.  Again  press  this  layer  of 
soil  which  has  covered  the  seeds  gently  with  the  smooth 
board. 

It  is  a  great  help  to  the  seed  to  have  the  surface  again 
covered  with  a  light  material  that  would  hold  moisture, 
such  as  dry  moss,  or  powdered  vegetable  matter  of  any 
kind  which  is  light  and  will  hold  moisture.  This  should 
be  rubbed  through  the  sieve  over  the  seed  boxes,  just 
thick  enough  to  cover  the  soil  (not  more  than  one-six- 
teenth of  an  inch).  It  is  very  beneficial  in  the  germina- 
tion of  the  seed,  as  with  such  a  top-dressing  one  watering 
with  a  fine  rose  watering-pot  will  keep  the  soil  moist 
enough  usually  until  the  seeds  come  up.  It  is  a  great 
mistake  to  be  continually  watering  seeds  after  they  have 
been  sown.  The  rule  in  all  these  things  is  never  to  water 
until  the  surface  indicates  that  the  soil  is  dry. 

A  Cold  Frame. — The  arrangement  which  comes  next  to 
the  seed  box  in  simplicity  is  the  cold  frame.  It  is  simply 
for  the  purpose  of  concentrating  sun  heat  and  protection 
from  low  temperatures  and  heavy  rain  storms.  It  is  a 
convenient  receptacle  for  the  seed  boxes  already  de- 
scribed, or  it  may  be  put  over  seeds  sown  in  the  ground — 
the  soil  being  prepared  to  receive  the  seed  in  about  the 
same  way  already  described  for  filling  the  boxes.  The 
frame  is  made  of  inch  boards,  the  front  board  about 
twelve  inches  wide,  the  back  board  or  boards  eighteen 
inches  wide  and  the  sides  sloping  from  eighteen  to  twelve 
inches  to  meet  the  widths  of  the  front  and  back  boards. 
The  frame  is  usually  made  three  feet  from  front  to  rear 
(for  convenience  in  working  from  the  front,  but  can  be 
)f  any  length  desired).  This  frame  is  covered  with  glazed 
sash  or  cloth  frames  or  lath  frames  or  first  one  then 
another,  according  to  the  amount  of  protection  and  heat 
or  of  shade  desirable.  The  arrangement  is  called  a  ' '  cold 


.  COLD  FRAMES  AND  HOT  BEDS.          163 

frame"  because  no  provision  is  made  for  bottom-heat. 
There  are  many  modifications  of  the  cold  frame ;  lath  or 
slat  houses  or  lath  covers  for  beds  with  raised  edging 
boards,  etc.,  are  all  on  the  cold  frame  principle,  and  in  this 
climate,  where  so  little  increment  of  heat  is  required  and 
where  shade  is  often  desirable,  the  arrangement  serves  an 
excellent  purpose. 

The  Hot-bed. — The  hot-bed  consists  of  a  box  like  that 
described  for  a  cold  frame  placed  above  a  mass  of  ferment- 
ing manure  which  supplies  bottom  heat.  The  old  regula- 
tion style  of  hot-bed  was  made  by  digging  out  a  pit  the 
size  of  the  frame,  throwing  out  the  soil  to  a  depth  of 
eighteen  inches  or  two  feet.  Fill  in  the  excavation  with  a 
foot  depth  of  fresh  horse  manure  mixed  with  straw  as 
it  comes  from  a  stable  where  the  animals  are  well  bedded 
with  straw.  Tread  the  manure  down  firmly;  put  on  the 
frame  and  cover  the  manure  with  eight  to  ten  inches  of 
good  light  and  rich  sandy  loam  that  will  not  bake  or 
crust  over  when  sprinkled  with  water.  Bank  up  the 
outside  of  the  frame  with  the  same  kind  of  manure  used 
inside,  and  cover  with  window  sashes  of  the  proper  length 
to  reach  across  the  bed  and  rest  on  the  sides.  The  sashes 
should  not  be  too  wide  as  it  is  desirable  to  uncover  part 
of  the  bed  at  a  time.  As  soon  as  the  manure  begins  to 
ferment  and  heat  the  bed  is  ready  for  use.  Sow  seeds 
in  rows  from  front  to  back  of  the  bed,  and  germination 
will  be  very  rapid.  On  warm  days  the  cover  should  be 
lifted  a  little  or  partially  or  wholly  removed,  according 
to  the  heat  of  the  day  and  the  activity  of  the  bottom  heat 
in  the  bed.  Water  freely  with  water  from  which  the  chill 
has  been  removed. 

This  old  style  of  hot-bed  is  contrived  to  freely  employ 
the  heat  'of  the  fermenting  manure  and  to  push  plants 
during  zero  temperatures  in  the  outer  air.  Of  course^ 
where  winter  temperatures  but  rarely  fall  to  the  freezing 
point,  and  where  the  winter  day  heat  often  runs  at  shirt 
sleeves  and  sun-bonnet  degrees,  such  a  hot-bed  is  as  ex- 
cessive in  the  garden  as  a  feather-bed  is  in  the  house.  For 


164  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES. 

these  reasons,  the  horse  manure  is  made  less  active  by 
considerable  admixture  of  chaff  or  dried  leaves  or 
other  mollients.  This  mixture  is  placed  on  the  surface 
of  the  ground  in  a  place  protected  from  cold  winds,  and 
is  properly  mixed  and  packed  down  into  a  compact,  flat 
pile,  somewhat  larger  than  the  frame,  which  is  placed 
upon  the  top  of  it  and  the  same  material  is  drawn  up 
around  the  outside  of  the  ends  and  sides  of  the  frame. 
Inside  the  frame  the  soil  is  placed  just  as  described  for 
the  hot-bed  with  a  pit.  This  raised,  instead  of  depressed, 
hot-bed  is  easier  to  make  and  it  has  other  advantages  for 
this  climate.  It  is  not  likely  to  have  its  pit  flooded  and 
the  heat  choked  off  by  rain  water  just  at  the  time  when 
its  action  is  desired.  It  is  also  easier  to  prevent  excessive 
heat  because  it  allows  better  opportunities  for  radiation. 
But  even  with  this  the  plants  have  to  be  very  carefully 
watched  and  air  freely  given  or  they  will  become  leggy 
and  weak  from  too  great  forcing-heat.  These  local  condi- 
tions have  also  given  rise  to  other  modifications  of  hot-bed 
arrangements  which  are  excellent  for  this  climate. 

A  Horticultural  Hot-box. — Mr.  Ira  W.  Adams,  a  Cali- 
fornia vegetable  grower  of  great  ingenuity  and  insight, 
has  devised  a  sort  of  automatic  arrangement  which 
changes  from  a  hot-bed  to  a  cold  frame  about  the  time  the 
plants  are  ready  to  go  from  forcing  to  hardening  off.  He 
gives  this  description  of  it : 

"I  take  a  dry-goods  box,  three  or  four  feet  long,  two 
feet  wide,  and  two  feet  or  more  in  depth.  This  is  about  as 
small  as  it  should  be ;  a  much  larger  one  can  be  used,  if 
necessary.  Into  this  I  put  fresh  horse  manure,  and  straw 
that  has  been  used  for  bedding,  and  tramp  it  down  occa- 
sionally as  solid  as  possible,  until  it  is  within  four  inches 
from  the  top.  Over  this  I  scatter  a  little  clean 'straw.  I 
then  use  small  boxes,  three  inches  deep,  and  fill  them 
nearly  full  with  nicely-prepared  soil,  and,  after  sowing  my 
seed,  place  each  box  in  the  warm  bed  and  cover  each  one 
with  a  pane  of  glass,  in  order  to  retain  moisture.  It  is 
necessary  to  remove  the  glass  occasionally,  for  the  pur- 


OTHER  PROPAGATING  APPLIANCES.  165 

pose  of  admitting  fresh  air.  The  main  bed  will  soon  com- 
mence to  heat,  as  well  as  the  earth  in  the  box.  Great  care 
must  now  be  taken  for  a  few  days,  otherwise  the  contests 
of  the  boxes  might  become  too  warm,  which  would  cause 
the  young  plants  to  grow  tall  and  spindling,  thereby  ren- 
dering them  almost  worthless.  This  can  be  easily  obvi- 
ated by  lifting  the  boxes  and  placing  under  them  an  inch 
board,  or  a  few  bricks.  On  a  cold  night  vary  the  boards 
or  bricks  as  occasion  may  require.  In  a  few  days  your 
plants  will  be  up  nicely,  the  heat  of  the  bed  will  gradually 
grow  less,  and  the  plants  "will  naturally  favor  themselves 
to  the  change.  You  will  soon  have  what  is  termed  a  'cold 
frame, '  and  your  plants  will  grow  strong  and  stocky,  pro- 
viding care  is  taken  to  cover  them  during  severe  storms, 
as  well  as  in  cold  days  and  nights.  When  they  are  yet 
small,  and  commence  to  crowd  each  other  too  much,  trans- 
plant them  to  an  open,  sheltered,  raised  bed,  where  they 
can  be  cared  for  until  ready  to  set  out  in  permanent  beds 
or  rows." 

A  Warm  Heap. — Another  of  Mr.  Adams '  arrangements 
to  give  his  seed  boxes  just  as  little  heat  as  suits  the  pur- 
pose, consists  in  simply  throwing  up  a  heap  of  fresh  horse 
manure,  etc.,  under  an  old  shed,  and  placing  the  seed- 
boxes  on  top  of  the  heap.  Great  care  must  be  taken  for 
some  days  at  least,  as  it  becomes  necesary  to  raise  the 
boxes  sometimes  by  placing  them  on  a  piece  of  board  or 
bricks  or  to  press  them  down  a  little  into  the  heap,  owing 
altogether  to  the  amount  of  heat  generated.  A  little  too 
much  is  worse  than  not  quite  enough.  After  the  plants 
get  a  few  inches  high  they  can  be  transplanted  into  open 
beds  somewhat  sheltered  from  the  north  winds,  where 
they  can  remain  until  spring  weather  fairly  opens,  when 
they  can  be  again  removed  to  the  garden. 

Watering. — In  growing  plants  with  heat,  moisture, 
conditions  must  be  especially  regarded.  Too  great  mois- 
ture and  "damping  off"  of  seedlings  is  largely  prevented 
in  common  vegetable  seedlings  by  adequate  ventilation 
which  has  already  been  emphasized  in  connection  with 


166  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES. 

prevention  of  excessive  heat.  Too  little  moisture  is  almost 
as  dangerous  as  too  much.  There  should  be,  then,  ample 
watering  with  a  fine  spray  or  sprinkle  of  water  from 
which  the  chill  has  been  removed.  Most  of  the  time,  water 
standing  in  the  sun  for  a  day  will  be  of  satisfactory 
warmth,  but  if  not,  a  little  boiling  water  from  the  kitchen 
will  temper  quite  a  volume  of  cold  water  for  use  in  the 
beds  and  frames. 

Covering  for  Beds  and  Frames. — California  growers 
largely  substitute  cloth  for  glass  in  covering  hot-beds  or 
cold  frames,  because  it  gives  afl  the  protection  needed,  is 
also  rather  more  of  a  safeguard  against  over-heating,  and 
furnishes  shade  from  too  intense  sun  heat,  which  is  liable 
to  come  on  any  winter  day  and  do  harm.  This  is  an  es- 
pecially valuable  feature  in  amateur  growing,  where  one 's 
attention  is  apt  to  be  distracted  by  other  affairs.  Besides, 
the  cloth  is  of  nominal  cost.  In  the  drier  parts  of  the 
State  the  "cloth  is  used  without  preparation.  Where  rains 
are  more  frequent,  water-proofing  is  desirable.  Take 
white  cloth  of  a  close  texture,  stretch  it,  and  nail  it  on 
frames  of  any  size  you  wish,  putting  in  cross-bars  to  sus- 
tain the  cloth  if  the  frame  is  large.  Mix  two  ounces  of 
lime  water,  four  ounces  of  linseed  oil,  one  ounce  of  white 
of  eggs  separately,  two  ounces  of  yolk  of  eggs ;  mix  the 
lime  and  oil  with  a  very  gentle  heat ;  beat  the  eggs  sepa- 
rately, and  mix  with  the  former.  Spread  the  mixture  with 
a  paint-brush  on  the  cloth,  allowing  each  coat  to  dry  be- 
fore applying  another,  until  they  become  waterproof. 

To  make  waterproof  cloth  with  less  labor  if  consider- 
able quantity  is  wanted :  Soften  four  and  one-half  ounces 
of  glue  in  eight  and  three-quarter  pints  of  water,  cold  at 
first;  then  dissolve  in,  say  a  wash-boiler  full  (six  gallons) 
of  warm  water,  with  two  and  one-half  ounces  or  hard 
soap ;  put  in  the  cloth  and  boil  for  an  hour,  wring  and 
dry ;  then  prepare  a  bath  of  a  pound  of  alum  and  a  pound 
of  salt,  soak  the  prepared  cloth  in  it  for  a  couple  of  hours, 
rinse  with  clear  water  and  dry.  One  gallon  of  the  glue 
solution  will  soak  about  ten  vards  of  cloth.  This  cloth  has 


HANDLING  SEEDS.  167 

been  used  in  southern  California  for  several  years  without 
mildewing,  and  it  will  hold  water  by  the  pailful. 

Handling  of  Seedlings. — As  has  been  hinted  already, 
seedlings  grown  by  artificial  heat  or  protection  should  be 
brought  along  by  such  adjustment  of  heat  hoisture  and 
fresh  air  that  they  are  of  good  healthy  color  and  sturdy 
growth.  It  is  common  practice  to  transplant  the  seedlings 
when  quite  small  to  other  boxes  of  rather  rich  soil,  in 
which  they  are  more  widely  spaced,  and  to  continue  the 
growth  with  the  heat  for  a  time  and  then  move  the  box  to 
a  cold  frame,  giving  them  progressively  more  air  and  less 
protection  until  they  acquire  a  hardiness  for  the  open  air. 
In  the  farm  garden  these  every-day  coddling  arts  of  the 
plantsman  are  apt  to  be  neglected,  and  it  will  answer  very 
well  to  thin  out  the  plants  enough  in  the  original  seed- 
boxes,  and  to  harden  them  by  gradually  increasing  the 
exposure  in  the  declining  heat  of  the  hot-bed,  and  then 
under  slight  shelter  in  the  open  air,  until  the  time  comes 
for  their  removal  to  open  ground.  If,  however,  there  is 
likely  to  be  some  time  before  planting  out,  the  trans- 
planting from  the  seed-box  to  a  protected  bed  in  the  open 
air  will  allow  the  postponement  of  transplanting  to  gar- 
den or  field  until  a  considerably  later  date.  It  is  a  mis- 
take to  hold  to  long  in  the  hot-bed  or  frame  with  the  idea 
of  gaining  time  by  having  large  plants  to  transplant. 
Good,  sturdy  plants,  well  used  to  fresh  air  and  the  lower 
temperatures,  will  make  the  best  records  in  the  open. 

The  points  to  observe  for  planting  out  seedlings  in  the 
open  air  are  almost  exactly  the  same  as  those  already 
given  in  this  chapter  for  the  arrangement  of  proper  mois- 
ture conditions  for  seed  germination.  Depth  of  planting 
depends  upon  the  same  conditions;  firming  of  the  soil 
about  the  rootlets  is  for  the  same  reasons ;  a  loose  surface 
above  and  frequent  cultivation  afterward  %re  essential 
because  of  considerations  already  described.  The  ju- 
dicious use  of  water  at  transplanting  is  a  very  important 
point  in  late  work  or  in  planting  out.  when  the  season  is 
rather  dry,  but  the  use  of  water  must  always  be  accompa- 


168  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES. 

an  old  caseknife,  carefully  put  over  the  whole  bed  two 
inches  of  rich  compost,  made  of  fine  creek  sand  and  de- 
cayed sods  a  year  or  two  old,  mixed  with  fine  sweepings 
from  the  cow  yard  gathered  in  summer  and  protected 
from  winter  rains.  Tamp  this  prepared  soil  pretty  firmly 
with  the  back  of  a  hoe,  and  plant  the  seeds  an  inch  or  so 
in  depth  around  each  stick  which  serves  to  indicate  the 
middle  of  each  sod.  Plant  six  to  eight  seeds  in  a  hill,  leav- 
ing finally  three  of  the  strongest  plants.  A  box  three  by 
two  feet  will  hold  twenty-four  sods. 

By  this  method  Mr.  Adams  quickly  gets  a  full  family 
outfit  ready  to  transplant  in  hills  from  one  hot-box.  He 
finds  two  hills  of  cucumbers,  six  of  muskmelons,  six  of 
watermelons,  and  ten  hills  of  pole  beans,  or  eight  hills  of 
beans  and  two  hills  of  summer  squashes  will  furnish  a  fam- 
ily of  five  all  or  more  than  they  can  possibly  consume,  and 
some  to  sell  or  give  away  besides,  if  the  plants  are  well 
taken  care  of.  The  box  for  early  plants  should  be  placed 
on  the  south  side  of  a  shed  or  barn  in  order  to  protect  it 
from  strong  north  winds,  heavy  cold  rains,  as  well  as  dan- 
ger of  frost,  and  water  as  needed  with  lukewarm  water. 
Transplant  the  sods  when  safe  by-  running  a  wide  shingle 
or  spade  on  the  floor  under  each  sod.  In  planting  out,  the 
sods  must  be  well  bedded  in  moist  soil  which  is  closely 
firmed  around  them,  and  the  surface  kept  loose. 

Cuttings  and  Layers. — Many  herbaceous  stems  of  gar- 
den vegetables  root  readily  from  cuttings.  Higher  heat 
and  greater  moisture  are  as  a  rule  requisite  for  such  cut- 
tings than  for  hardwood  cuttings  of  fruiting  and  flower- 
ing plants,  but  some,  like  the  potato,  sweet  potato,  globe 
artichoke,  etc.,  root  quickly  in  open  ground  taken  from 
sprouts  taken  from  parent  stock,  and  others,  like  the  to- 
mato, grow  from  cuttings  of  aerial  stems.  In  the  open 
ground  the  soil  must  be  warm  and  moist  and  the  air  moist 
also.  These  conditions  usually  occur  in  California  at  the 
beginning  or  especially  towards  the  end  of  the  rainy  sea- 
son, or  they  can  be  produced  in  a  hot-bed  at  any  time. 
The  cuttings  should  not  wilt,  and  shade  is  of  advantage 


TRANSPLANTING  IN  HILLS.  169 

nied  by  stirring  of  the  surface  or  other  means  of  prevent- 
ing evaporation,  or  else  the  plants  will  dwindle,  and  on 
investigation  the  dead  stem  will  be  found  to  resemble  a 
match  stuck  in  an  unburned  brick,  if  the  soil  is  at  all 
heavy  in  its  nature. 

Planting  Seedlings. — Seedlings  to  be  planted  in  the 
field  for  horse  cultivation  are  distanced  by  the  use  of  a 
marker,  as  described  in  the  chapter  on  laying  off.  In 
small  beds  for  hand  work,  the  plants  can  be  accurately 
distanced  both  ways  by  using  a  "planting  board."  It  is 
made  of  width  equal  to  the  desired  distance  between  the 
rows,  and  of  a  length  equal  to  the  width  of  the  bed,  and  is 
carefully  cut,  by  the  use  of  a  carpenter's  square,  so  that 
the  ends  are  exactly  at  right  angles  to  the  sides.  By 
stretching  a  line  along  the  length  of  the  bed,  and  making 
one  end  of  the  board  true  with  that  line,  the  sides  of  the 
board  will  mark  two  parallel  lines  across  the  bed,  and 
notches  cut  at  desired  distances  in  the  sides  of  the  board 
will  show  where  the  plants  are  to  be  set.  If  the  board  is 
carefully  used  the  bed  may  be  quickly  set  with  plants, 
which  will  stand  in  straight  lines  both  ways.  Standing 
on  the  board  while  planting  prevents  impacting  the 
ground  surface  and  disfiguring  it  with  foot-prints. 

Plants  Ready  Grown  in  Hills  for  Transplanting. — All 
seedlings  which  it  is  desirable  to  grow  in  groups  or  hills 
are  very  neatly  and  safely  handled  by  Mr.  Adams  by  the 
use  of  inverted  sods  in  connection  with  his  hot-box  already 
described.  About  the  first  of  April,  in  Napa  valley  (it 
may  be  done  earlier  in  many  parts  of  the  State),  he  takes 
sods  of  native  growth  six  inches  square  and  four  inches 
deep,  or  he  grows  in  seed-boxes  alfalfa  sods,  which  will 
form  sufficiently  in  six  weeks  from  sowing  the  seed.  He 
makes  a  temporary  floor  of  old  boards  and  places  it  on 
top  of  the  packed  manure  of  his  hot-box.  The  inverted 
sods  are  then  packed  closely  on  this  floor  with  the  grass 
gathered  in  nicely  under  each  sod.  Exactly  in  the  middle 
of  each  inverted  sod  thrust  a  small  stick,  and  after  scari- 
fying each  sod  thoroughly  an  inch  or  two  in  depth  with 


170  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES. 

when  practicable,  for  cuttings  made  from  aerial  stems,  as 
they  are  more  prone  to  collapse  than  sprouts  from  the 
tuber  or  root  crown. 

Layering  is  often  a  handy  way  to  multiply  many  vege- 
tables with  branching  stems.  Cover  the  stems  with  moist 
earth  and  they  usually  root  readily.  In  some  cases  a  short 
slit  with  a  knife  lengthwise  of  buried  stem  aids  in  rooting. 
A  Consideration  of  Cans. — It  would  not  do  to  ignore 
the  can  method  of  vegetable  growing  and  deny  this  refuse 
tinware  its  place  in  amateur  gardening,  for  really  some 
very  creditable  things  are  done  in  cans.  If  one  prepares 
the  right  kind  of  soil,  with  such  texture  that  it  will  form 
neither  a  leach  nor  a  brick,  and  then  strives  for  correct 
temperature  and  moisture  conditions  and  makes  drainage 
holes  enough,  a  plant  will  grow  in  a  tin  can  as  well  as 
in  some  more  distinguished  receptacle.  Many  housewives 
grow  very  creditable  tender  plants  for  planting  out  by 
using  old  tin  cans  and  a  sunny  window  shelf.  Some  de- 
voted city  gardeners  make  surprising  successes  on  the  old- 
can  foundation.  In  San  Jose  a  few  years  ago  there  was 
a  back  yard  12  by  25  feet,  surrounded  by  high  white- 
washed fences  and  sheds,  which  cast  a  blinding  glare  in 
the  eye  of  the  visitor.  Gardening  enthusiasm  and  tin  cans 
transformed  the  scene.  Tomato  vines  ran  above  the  eaves 
of  the  shed,  being  trained  to  the  wall  like  grapevines.  Be- 
tween the  tomato  plants  were  squash  vines,  from  which 
the  laterals  and  leaves  were  cut  as  they  grew  toward  the 
roof,  so  that  they  were  little  more  than  a  bare  stem  below 
the  eaves,  but  had  a  most  luxuriant  growth  at  the  eaves 
and  on  the  roof  of  the  shed  and  back  porch  and  along  the 
top  of  fences.  Large  squashes  ripened  on  the  roof  and 
shelves  at  the  eaves  and  on  fence  tops.  String  beans,  pep- 
pers, and  mint  grew  below  the  running  vines.  Tomato 
plants  over  six  feet  in  height  were  severely  pruned  near 
Cans  of  all  sizes  were  used ;  old,  rusty  five-gallon  cans, 
breezes,  and  a  little  direct  but  more  reflected  sunshine, 
the  ground  to  a  bare  stalk,  giving  free  circulation  to  cats, 
with  the  bottoms  punched  full  of  holes;  small  cans,  one 


CONSIDERATION  OF  CANS.  171 

set  over  another  and  filled  half  full  of  fresh  bones,  and 
poured  into  the  cans,  leached  through  the  ashes,  combin- 
ing a  complete  fertilizer  and  system  of  sub-irrigation.  The 
cans  were  often  artfully  concealed  from  sight,  but  they 
were  there  as  the  foundation  of  an  enterprise.  By  their 
use  and  the  employment  of  vertical  space  for  the  plant 
extension,  this  little  mite  of  a  city  back  yard  was  made  into 
a  pretty  greenery  without  interfering  with  its  function  as 
a  clothes-drying  yard  on  Mondays.  When  one  sees  such 
things  he  is  led  to  wonder  whether  there  is  anything  which 
Will  and  Work  and  Water  can  not  accomplish. 


CHAPTER  XII. 
ARTICHOKES. 

The  Globe  or  Bur  Artichoke. — Cynara  Scolymus. 

French,  artichaut;  German,  artischoke ;  Dutch,  arisjok; 
Danish,  artiskok;  Italian,  articiocca,  carciofo;  Spanish, 
alcachofa;  Portuguese,  alcachofra. 

Edible  part,  portions  of  young  flower  buds. 

The  Jerusalem  Artichoke. — Ilelianthus  tuberosus. 

French,  topinambour ;  German,  erdapf el ;  Flemish,  aard- 
peer;  Danish,  jordskokken ;  Italian,  girasole  del  Canada; 
Spanish,  namara;  Portuguese,  topinambor. 

Edible  part,  the  tuber. 

San  Francisco  has  the  reputation  of  being  the  city  of 
the  United  States  best  supplied  with  the  delicious  young 
over  these  several  inches  of  fresh  wood  ashes.  Water 
flower  buds  of  the  globe  artichoke.  Although  this  is  true, 
it  is  also  a  fact  that  the  plant  is  not  used  to  even  a  small 
fraction  of  its  possibility  in  California.  It  is  perfectly 
hardy  in  our  valley  climates,  in  fact,  it  makes  its  chief 
growth  in  the  winter  and  yields  its  crop  from  March  on- 
ward, thus  completely  reversing  its  Eastern  and  north 
European  record,  where  it  starts  growth  in  the.  spring 
from  roots  which  have  been  covered  out  of  reach  of  freez- 
ing all  winter.  For  this  reason  it  is  not  necessary  to.  lift 
plants  and  carry  them  under  cover  nor  to  pluck  bud- 
stems  and  advance  them  to  edibility  away  from  the  freez- 
ing as  may  be  necessary  in  wintry  climates.  In  fact,  in 
places  of  little  frost  the  plant  forgets  to  become  dormant, 
or  takes  a  very  short  rest,  and  the  vegetable  is  to  be  found 
in  the  San  Francisco  and  Los  Angeles  markets  nearly  all 
the  year.  The  plant  is,  therefore,  of  especial  value  in  Cali- 


PROPAGATION.  173 

fornia  for  use  in  late  winter  and  early  spring  when  garden 
supplies  are  scantiest.  It  is  a  garden  ornament  also  with 
its  height  of  four  feet  or  more,  its  large,  pinnatifid  leaves, 
light  green  above  and  whitish  below,  and  its  flowers  in  the 
style  of  a  colossal  thistle  head. 

Soil. — The  globe  artichoke  will  thrive  on  any  well-pre- 
pared garden  soil  and  does  not  refuse  a  pretty  heavy 
adobe  if  well  cultivated  to  retain  moisture.  It  delights  in 
manure  and  is  benefited  by  it  both  in  the  tenderness  of  its 
buds  and  the  multiplication  of  bearing  stems. 

Propagation. — The  plant  grows  readily  from  seed  which 
may  be  planted  either  in  boxes  or  the  open  ground  from 
September  to  January,  if  irrigation  is  available :  if  not, 
sow  as  soon  as  the  ground  is  deeply  moistened  by  rain. 
The  seedlings  may  be  transplanted  to  permanent  place 
whenever  the  ground  is  suitable  the  same  season.' 

But  there  is  much  variation  in  plants  from  seed  and 
parts  taken  from  old  plants  of  good  type  are  to  be  pre- 
ferred. The  plant  grows  readily  from  dividing  the  stool 
or  from  suckers  detached  from  the  root  crown.  The  latter 
furnish  an  excellent  means  of  multiplication  and  should 
be  secured  by  first  uncovering  the  stool  as  soon  as  there 
is  a  good  growth  of  new  shoots  with  well-developed  leaves. 
Remove  the  shoots  carefully  with  a  knife  or  sharp  gouge 
so  as  to  take  a  small  part  of  the  parent  root  at  the  base  of 
the  shoot.  Many  plants  can  thus  be  taken  from  a  single 
root-crown  and  a  few  of  the  best  shoots  left  for  growth. 
Shorten  the  leaves  somewhat  to  reduce  evaporation  until 
new  roots  are  formed.  These  sprouts  can  be  planted  at 
once  in  permanent  place  if  the  ground  is  warm  and  moist 
and  will  bear  late  in  the  same  year.  It  is  possible  then  by 
starting  new  plants  at  intervals  to  have  a  long  producing 
period  in  each  year.  The  old  stools  will  continue  bearing 
for  many  years. 

Distance. — So  free  is  the  growth  in  this  State,  it  is  bet- 
ter to  give  a  good  distance  :  three  feet  apart  in  rows  which 
are  four  or  five  feet  apart  is  not  too  much  room  for  con- 
venience. As  the  plant  is  high  and  rather  dense  the  rows 


174  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES. 

should  be  placed  in  the  background  of  the  small  garden 
and  its  use  as  an  ornamental  hedge  or  screen  is  suggested, 
providing  the  ground  is  kept  rich  and  well  cultivated. 

Gathering. — The  flower  buds  should  be  removed  as  soon 
as  they  are  well  formed  and  before  the  scales  open.  In 
this  condition  they  are  more  tender  and  a  larger  portion 
of  the  scale  is  edible.  As  the  bud  stands  at  the  apex  of 
the  shoot,  the  shoot  should  be  cut  to  the  ground.  If  this  is 
done  the  plant  is  induced  to  send  up  more  shoots.  As  soon 
as  flowers  are  allowed  to  open,  the  growth  of  shoots  from 
below  is  checked  or  stopped.  Hence  prompt  cutting  as 
soon  as  in  condition  insures  a  larger  bearing  season,  but 
as  other  vegetables  come  into  condition,  the  plants  should 
be  allowed  to  make  free  top  growth  for  the  reinforcement 
of  the  roots  for  the  next  season. 

Variety. — The  variety  chiefly  grown  in  California  is  the 
Large  Green  Paris,  a  vigorous  grower  yielding  buds  of 
large  size  with  scales  very  fleshy  at  the  base  and  set  in  a 
broad  receptacle  also  fleshy.  This  variety  grown  for  suc- 
cession seems  to  leave  little  opportunity  for  the  use  of 
other  varieties. 

THE  JERUSALEM  ARTICHOKE. 

This  plant  which  will  be  readily  recognized  as  a  tuber- 
ous-rooted sunflower,  is  exceedingly  prolific  in  California. 
It  is  not  largely  used  for  human  food,  though  it  is  usually 
to  be  found  in  the  San  Francisco  market.  It  somewhat 
resembles  a  potato  in  flavor,  and  yet  has  its  own  distinc- 
tive character,  and  is  cooked  in  several  ways.  It  may  be 
baked,  or  pared  and  cooked  like  salsify,  or  boiled  for  use 
in  soups  and  salads. 

Soil,  Culture  and  Yield. — The  Jerusalem  artichoke  is 
not  Very  particular  about  soil.  It  reaches  better  form  in 
rather  a  light  soil,  as  does  a  potato,  and  it  yields  enor- 
mously on  a  rich  loam,  but  it  will  probably  yield  a  greater 
weight  on  a  poor,  dry  soil  than  any  other  crop  known.  S. 
J.  Murdock,  of  Orange  county,  gives  this  account  of  the 
plant : 


SOIL  CULTURE  AND  YIELD.  175 

' '  The  preparation  of  the  ground  and  the  subsequent  cul- 
tivation is  the  same  as  for  potatoes ;  the  rows  should  not  be 
less  than  four  feet  apart,  and  three  feet  between  plants. 
Plant  small  tubers  or  the  larger  ones  cut  to  two  eyes,  and 
about  four  inches  deep.  Keep  the  ground  stirred  to  pre- 
vent weeds,  till  the  plants  shade  the  patch,  and  then  they 
will  take  care  of  themselves.  They  should  yield  from 
seven  to  fifteen  tons  per  acre,  or  even  more,  with  a  good 
stand,  good  soil,  and  care.  On  a  dry  year  a  neighbor  of 
mine  planted  one  acre  to  artichokes,  but  got  but  little  over 
half  a  stand  on  account  of  parts  of  his  land  being  too  dry. 
Yet  with  his  partial  stand  he  raised  ten  tons  of  tubers. ' ' 

But  Mr.  Murdock  and  his  neighbors  operate  on  a  peat 
soil  of  great  looseness  and  richness,  which  favors  the 
maximum  size  and  multiplication  of  the  tubers.  His  re- 
sults are,  therefore,  not  attainable  everywhere,  but  still 
the  growth  and  productiveness  of  the  plant  are  marvelous 
in  this  climate. 

Gathering. — In  the  garden  the  artichoke  bed  can  be  re- 
garded as  a  permanent  investment.  Digging  can  begin  in 
the  autumn  at  one  end  of  the  bed  and  proceed  regularly 
through  it  as  the  tubers  are  wanted  until  growth  starts  in 
the  spring.  Selecting  the  large  tubers  for  use  and  leaving 
the  small  ones  in  the  soil  will  harvest  and  replant  the  crop 
at  one  operation.  It  is  necessary  to  dig  at  intervals  for 
the  tubers  are  prone  to  decay  and  cannot  be  stored  as 
potatoes  are. 

Before  the  rains  are  over,  the  bed  should  have  a  top 
dressing  of  manure  and  then  it  is  ready  for  another  sea- 
son, with  no  farther  care  except  pulling  weeds  which  start 
early. 

The  Jerusalem  artichoke  has  been  commended  for  years 
as  a  food  for  hogs — the  animals  to  do  their  own  harvesting. 
Some  growers  are  very  enthusiastic  over  it,  but  why  it  has 
not  been  more  widely  employed  has  never  been  fully  ex- 
plained. Some  growers  commend  them  highly  as  cow- 
feed,  and  when  boiled,  fowls  eat  them  readily — but  the 
cost  of  digging  for  such  purposes  is  a  serious  drawback. 


176  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES. 

Varieties. — Two  varieties  have  been  widely  distributed 
in  California:  the  White  French  and  the  Red  Brazilian. 
The  white  kind  is  preferred  for  table  use  and  the  red  is 
chosen  for  field  growth  for  stock,  as  it  is  believed  to  be 
rather  more  vigorous  and  prolific.  The  red  variety  is, 
however,  frequently  found  in  our  vegetable  markets  and  is 
acceptable  for  table  use. 


CHAPTER  XIII. 
ASPARAGUS. 

Asparagus. — Asparagus  Officinalis. 

French,  asperge;  German,  spargel;  Flemish  and  Dutch, 
aspersie ;  Danish,  asparges ;  Italian,  sparagio ;  Spanish, 
esparrago ;  Portuguese,  espargo. 

Asparagus  is  a  leading  winter  vegetable  in  California 
and  is  produced  as  a  field  crop  for  local  sale,  for  canning, 
and  for  Eastern  shipment.  It  is  not  grown,  however,  as  a 
garden  crop  for  home  use  as  widely  as  it  should  be.  This 
is  probably  to  be  accounted  for  in  part  by  the  fact  that  in 
nearly  all  towns  it  can  be  cheaply  bought  during  the  late 
winter  and  spring :  in  part,  also,  to  an  exaggerated  notion 
of  the  difficulty  of  making  and  caring  for  an  asparagus 
bed.  On  the  drier  lands  of  the  interior,  even  with  irriga- 
tion, it  is  apt  to  be  stringy  and  tough,  but  on  interior, 
moist  lowlands,  it  is  grand  and  is  largely  grown  on  such 
lands  both  for  canning  and  shipment  fresh.  In  almost  all 
parts  of  the  State  it  is  not  difficult  for  the  attentive  gard- 
ener to  secure  crop  and  quality  which  will  amply  repay 
his  effort.  Regions  open  to  Coast  influences  either  directly 
or  through  gaps  in  the  Coast  Range,  or  regions  where  at- 
mospheric humidity  is  increased  somewhat  by  evaporation 
from  moist  soil  or  wide  water  surface,  as  is  the  case  in 
interior  river  bottoms,  have  superior  conditions  for  the 
growth  of  the  plant  which  is  maritime  in  its  origin  and 
nature.  On  the  peat  lands  of  Orange  county  asparagus 
established  itself  as  an  escape  from  cultivation  and  it  is 
stated  that  this  demonstration  of  its  choice  of  situation 
suggested  the  larger  plantings  for  distant  shipment  which 
have  been  made. 

Soil. — The  low  peat  lands  of  Orange  county  just  men- 


178  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES. 

tioned  are  composed  of  vegetable  debris  intermixed  with 
sand,  and  are  very  loose  and  penetrable  in  their  mixture. 
They  are  also  underlaid  by  impervious  strata  at  consid- 
erable depth,  which  holds  water  within  reach  of  the  plant 
roots.  Similar  soil  and  moisture  conditions  are  found  in 
the  reclaimed  lands  of  the  Sacramento  and  San  Joaquin 
deltas  where  the  greatest  production  and  the  largest  as- 
paragus canneries  are  to  be  found.  In  both  these  regions, 
though  500  miles  distant  from  each  other,  the  conditions 
of  soil,  moisture,  and  heat  are  comparable  and  so  are  the 
growers'  results.  But  it  is  not  essential  that  just  these 
conditions  prevail.  In  the  Santa  Clara  valley,  in  the  Sac- 
ramento valley,  and  elsewhere  deep,  alluvial  soils  without 
any  great  amount  of  vegetable  debris  have  for  many  years 
furnished  large  quantities  to  the  markets.  Any  deep, 
rich  sandy  loam,  moist  enough  to  give  a  winter  and  spring 
crop  and  a  summer  growth  of  foliage  to  reinforce  the 
roots,  will  grow  good  crops  of  asparagus  for  years  with 
proper  cultivation,  generous  manuring,  and  occasional 
salting.  Soils  which  are  too  wet  or  too  dry  or  too  heavy 
to  allow  free  growth,  yield  inferior  shoots,  tough,  stringy, 
or  bitter  as  the  case  may  be.  Of  course  a  heavy  soil  may 
be  improved  for  a  garden  bed  of  asparagus  by  free  use  of 
sand  and  manure  well  worked  through  it,  but  commercial 
plantings  should  only  be  made  on  naturally  fit  soils. 

Growing  the  Plants. — Asparagus  grows  readily  from 
seed  and  in  this  State  well-grown  yearling  roots  are  used 
for  planting  out  in  preference  to  older  ones.  The  house 
gardener  can,  therefore,  save  a  year 's  time  by  buying  roots 
from  the  seedsmen,  but  for  the  large  plantation  the 
grower  will  usually  grow  his  own  plants.  This  can  be 
done  in  the  open  air ;  adequate  moisture  and  a  light,  fine 
soil  will  insure  success  the  first  year  if  the  seed  is  grown 
early  enough  to  get  the  benefit  of  a  full  season's  growth. 

A  light,  coarse  soil  which  may  be  excellent  for  the  after 
growth  of,  the  roots,  is  not  so  good  for  starting  the  seed- 
lings because  of  danger  of  surface  drying.  A  mixture  of 
fine  sediment  will  improve  a  coarse  soil  for  this  purpose. 


GROWING  ASPARAGUS  PLANTS.  179 

A  very  good  way  to  get  quick  germination  and  large  root 
growth  is  to  start  the  seed  bed  in  February  or  March,  as 
the  soil  becomes  warm :  get  good,  fresh  seed ;  take  boxes, 
say  apple  boxes,  or  any  boxes  of  about  that  size ;  get  good, 
clean  sand,  and  mix  sand  and  seed  together,  about  15  parts 
of  sand  to  one  part  of  seed;  fill  the  boxes  with  sand  and 
seed  mixed  as  described;  set  away  in  a  warm  place  and 
pour  on  water,  quite  warm,  two  or  three  times  during  the 
first  two  days. 

In  the  meantime,  prepare  and  richly  pulverize  a  piece  of 
ground  for  a  seed  bed.  Make  rows  about  four  feet  apart 
by  raking  all  lumps  and  clods  away,  forming  a  kind  of 
ditch  or  depression  about  two  or  three  inches  below  the 
level  of  the  land.  Make  these  ditches  about  one  foot  wide, 
and  watch  the  seed  closely,  for  if  the  seed  is  good  in  about 
seven  days  nearly  all  the  seeds  will  begin  to  sprout.  Then 
take  the  boxes  of  sand  and  seed  to  the  prepared  ground 
and  sprinkle  it  about  a  foot  in  width  in  the  rows  or  ditches 
quite  freely,  using  judgment  all  the  time  not  to  get  too 
much  or  too  little.  Cover  up  with  finely  pulverized  earth 
about  one  and  one-half  inches  deep,  and  if  the  ground  is 
moist,  your  plants  will  be  up  and  growing  in  a  few  days,  at 
least  before  the  weeds  will  make  their  appearance.  Let 
the  plants  stand  there ;  but  take  good  care  of  them.  They 
are  very  quickly  injured  by  drying  out.  The  bed  should  be 
kept  clean  and  moist. 

This  method  gives  seedlings  scattered  through  a  space 
one  foot  wide  and  though  the  cultivator  may  be  used  be- 
tween these  foot-strips,  there  must  be  hand-pulling  of 
weeds  within  the  strips.  For  this  reason  some  growers 
prefer  to  start  the  plants  in  thin  rows  by  sowing  the  seed 
in  a  drill  and  afterwards  spacing  the  plants  in  the  row  to 
prevent  crowding  on  the  roots.  In  this  practice  the  rows 
are  placed  one  to  two  feet  apart  according  as  hand  or 
horse  cultivator  is  to  be  practiced.  Whichever  method  is 
followed  it  is  important  to  start  the  seeds  in  a  slight  de- 
pression so  that  subsequent  cultivation  may  level  the 
ground  and  bring  a  deeper  covering  over  the  young  root 


180  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES. 

crowns  to  guard  them  from  excessive  heat.  The  seed  can, 
however,  in  a  light  soil,  be  placed  at  a  depth  of  two  inches 
and  the  moisture  can  be  retained  near  the  surface  by  care- 
ful raking  to  prevent  crusting  over.  A  rake  with  thin 
teeth  can  be  used  even  after  the  seedlings  have  appeared, 
to  keep  the  soil  loose  about  them. 

Planting  Out  the  Garden  Bed<— Garden  beds  or  rows  can 
be  made  by  the  old  system  of  trenching,  if  it  is  desired, 
although  recent  practice  rather  discards  it.  Trench  about 
18  or  20  inches  deep,  then  fill  up  with  well-rotted  manure, 
dig  the  next  trench  and  throw  the  dirt  over  on  the  top  of 
the  trench  filled  with  manure,  and  so  on  until  all  is 
trenched.  Then  begin  and  stir  the  last  trench  up  with  the 
dirt,  measure  off  the  distance  the  asparagus  plants  are  to 
stand,  say  two  feet  if  for  hand  hoeing,  and  then  stick  a 
stake,  set  the  plants,  and  then  take  the  dirt  off  the  next 
trench  to  cover  the  plants,  and  so  on  until  over  the  ground, 
when  all  the  plants  will  be  set. 

If  the  garden  is  small,  the  soil  rich,  and  moisture  ample, 
some  other  use  can  be  made  of  the  bed  the  first  year.  The 
stakes  will  show  the  location  of  the  asparagus  roots.  Be- 
tween these  stakes  set  a  cabbage  plant  and  then  in  the 
middle  of  the  row  set  out  lettuce  plants,  and  sow  radishes, 
carrots,  and  early  turnips.  The  carrots  and  radishes  will 
be  disposed  of  before  the  cabbages  are  ready,  and  some 
other  quick  growing  vegetable  can  be  put  in,  after  irri- 
gation. The  second  year  give  the  whole  ground  to  the 
asparagus,  and  in  the  fall  clean  off  the  bed,  cover  with  a 
eoat  of  coarse  manure  to  keep  the  ground  from  packing 
with  the  heavy  rains,  and  fork  it  all  in  early  in  the  fol- 
lowing spring,  being  careful  not  to  injure  the  root  crowns. 
A  small  cutting  can  be  made  the  second  season,  but  it 
will  help  future  crops  to  cut  very  little. 

Field  Planting  of  Asparagus. — Roots  can  be  moved  from 
the  seed-bed  to  the  field  at  any  time  from  November  to 
April,  according  to  condition  of  soil  and  activity  of  roots. 
As  with  other  plantings,  however,  early  practice  is  better 
when  all  is  favorable.  As  to  methods  of  planting  in  the 


FIELD  PLANTING  OF  ASPARAGUS.  181 

field,  the  experience  of  two  prominent  large-scale  growers 
is  given.  First,  the  method  of  Mr.  William  Boots,  one  of 
the  old  line  asparagus  growers  on  the  alluvial  lands  of  the 
Santa  Clara  valley : 

' '  Next  March  (for  I  think  March  the  best  month  to  plant 
in,  all  else  being  equal)  choose  a  good  piece  of  land,  the 
very  best  is  none  too  good,  and  plow  just  as  deep  as  you 
can.  I  plow  with  four  good  horses  on  a  single  plow,  and 
plow  one  foot  deep,  getting  the  land  in  as  good  condition 
as  possible.  Take  a  good  team  and  draw  furrows  where 
the  rows  are  wanted,  going  twice  in  the  same  place,  just 
as  deep  as  we  can  get  the  plow  to  run,  throwing  the  furrow 
each  way,  making  the  distance  six  feet  between  rows. 
Then  carefully  take  up  the  plants,  carefully  separate  them, 
for  if  they  have  been  very  closely  grown  they  will  cling 
together ;  spread  out  the  roots  as  you  plant  them,  clearing 
away  all  clods  or  anything  that  may  hinder  the  growth. 
Plant  not  closer  than  three  feet  between  plants  in  the 
rows.  For  field  planting  for  the  market,  by  all  means  do 
not  plant  closer  than  seven  feet  between  the  rows,  and 
three  feet  apart  in  the  rows;  for  if  there  is  a  plant  that 
delights  in  plenty  of  room  and  air  it  certainly  is  asparagus. 
Cover  the  plants  about  two  inches  deep,  and  during  the 
summer  cultivation  the  pulverized  earth  will  drop  into  the 
ditches,  and  by  the  time  the  season's  cultivation  is  over 
the  ditches  or  furrows  will  be  nearly  full,  which  finishes 
the  first  year  in  the  field. ' ' 

Another  method  is  that  approved  by  S.  J.  Murdock,  on 
the  peat  lands  of  Orange  county : 

"The  rows  should  be  four  feet  apart  and  the  plants 
eighteen  inches  from  each  other  in  the  rows,  and  even 
more  room  would  be  better  if  the  land  is  not  too  valuable. 
After  the  ground  is  well  plowed  and  finely  harrowed,  mark 
out  the  rows  the  desired  distance  apart  with  a  plow  by 
going  twice  in  each  row,  throwing  a  furrow  each  way  from 
the  center  of  the  row,  and  from  eight  to  twelve  inches 
deep ;  then  go  one  or  more  rounds  in  this  with  a  cultivator, 
closed  up,  so  as  to  loosen  up  the  soil  well  in  the  bottom  of 


182  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES. 

the  row.  If  you  have  any  fine  fertilizer  put  it  in  the  row 
where  you  want  to  set  your  plants ;  mix  well  with  the  soil 
and  set  your  plants  over  it.  Place  the  plants  in  the  bottom 
of  the  prepared  furrow,  spread  out  the  roots  and  cover 
crown  and  all  about  two  or  three  inches — the  lighter  the 
soil  the  deeper  the  plants  should  be  placed — so  as  to  secure 
the  proper  moisture  till  they  begin  to  strike  root.  After 
the  planting  has  been  done,  take  a  light  steel  garden  rake, 
or,  if  the  rows  are  even  enough,  we  would  prefer  the  wheel 
hoe  with  the  rakes  on,  and  stir  the  soil  the  whole  length 
of  the  rows.  Then,  when  the  shoots  begin  to  grow  and 
show  themselves  three  or  four  inches  high*,  the  soil  should 
be  gradually  hoed  or  cultivated  to  the  plants  till  the  sur- 
face is  level.  The  ground  should  be  kept  moist,  and  in 
most  localities  irrigation  will  be  found  necessary  to  secure 
the  best  results.  Do  not  neglect  thorough  cultivation,  but 
after  the  roots  begin  to  fill  the  ground  do  not  work  too 
deep,  as  there  is  danger  of  injuring  them." 

Giving  the  plant  plenty  of  room  favors  its  productive 
longevity,  while  closer  planting  may  secure  larger  acre- 
yield  at  first.  In  the  large  commercial  plantations  on  re- 
claimed lands  of  the  Sacramento  and  San  Joaquin  river 
bottoms  the  plants  are  usually  given  much  greater  dis- 
tances— say  nine  or  ten  feet  between  the  rows  and  the 
plants  two  feet  apart  in  the  row.  Much  greater  depth  of 
covering  is  secured  by  ridging  the  light,  peaty  soil,  so  that 
the  shoots  have  to  pierce  about  a  foot  of  covering  on  their 
way  to- the  light.  This  secures  the  great  length  of  large 
white  shoots  which  are  characteristic  of  California  canned 
asparagus.  The  ridges  are  made  by  the  use  of  plows,  disks 
and  crowders  which  cut  deeply  between  the  rows  and 
shift  the  soil  over  the  root  crowns,  and  the  cutting  is  done 
by  plunging  a  long  gouge  into  the  side  of  the  ridge  as  the 
protrusion  of  a  tip  indicates  the  location  of  a  good  shoot. 
These  ridges  are  split  with  a  plow  or  disk  when  the  cut- 
ting season  is  over,  and  the  land  leveled  for  the  summer 
growth.  This  is  simply  an  enlargement  of  old  practices, 
as  described  below,  as  the  light  soil,  largely  made  of  partly 


SUMMER  TREATMENT  OF  ASPARAGUS.  183 

decomposed  vegetation,  favors  cheap  shifting  of  great 
bulks  of  it  to  serve  different  needs  of  the  plants. 

Later  Treatment  of  the  Asparagus  Field. — There  are 
several  points  to  gain  in  subsequent  cultivation  of  the 
asparagus  field.  One  is  early  starting  of  the  plants,  and 
for  that  purpose  some  growers  plow  first  away  from  the 
rows  to  open  the  ground  better  to  the  winter  sunshine ; 
another  is  to  induce  the  growth  of  long,  tender,  white 
shoots,  and  to  retain  moisture  for  prolonging  the  cutting 
season,  and  to  aid  summer  growth  of  foliage,  and  for  these 
ends  the  early  spring  plowing  is  to  cover  the  rows  with  a 
deep  layer  of  loose  soil.  Mr.  Boots'  method  is  as  follows : 

"Now  do  not  attempt  to  cut  any  asparagus  until  your 
plants  have  grown  two  years,  but  cultivate  thoroughly. 
The  second  season's  growth  you  will  find  quite  strong, 
and  along  in  the  fall,  after  the  frost  has  killed  the  tops, 
take  a  mowing  machine  or  scythe  and  cut  the  tops  close  to 
the  ground,  pile  up  and  burn  on  the  ground,  as  your  plants 
are  too  deep  in  the  ground  to  be  affected  by  the  fire.  Some 
time  in  November  or  December,  and  not  later  than  the 
first  of  January,  take  two  horses  and  plow,  and  go  along 
the  rows  close  to  the  stubs  that  you  cut  off,  throwing  the 
furrows  from  the  rows,  then  follow  along  with  sharp  hoes 
and  cut  the  stubs  way  low  down;  also  break  down  the 
little  ridge  that  will  be  left  between  the  furrows. 

* '  The  sun  and  air  will  warm  and  start  the  roots  to  grow- 
ing, sometimes  as  early  as  the  first  of  January,  and  the  first 
plowing  ought  to  be  done  before  the  sprouts  begin  to  make 
their  appearance. 

"Along  in  the  early  spring  after  the  heavy  rains  are 
over,  and  the  plants  have  begun  to  push  up  nice  healthy 
sprouts,  take  two  horses  and  plow,  and  reverse  the  opera- 
tion by  throwing  the  earth  back  onto  the  rows,  leaving 
the  dead  furrow  in  the  center  between  the  rows,  covering 
the  plants  up  deeply,  leaving  the  plants  under  the  ridge. 
Then  take  a  fine,  sharp-toothed  harrow,  and  drag  along 
the  rows  the  same  way  the  plow  went,  which  will  cut  up 
and  drag  out  all  clods  and  lumps,  and  leave  the  earth  in 


184  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES. 

fine  condition  for  the  sprouts  to  come  up  through,  for 
should  the  ground  not  be  in  good  order,  your  'grass'  will 
be  crippled  and  crooked.  It  will  also  be  tough,  fibrous, 
and  bitter. 

'  *  Continue  thorough  cultivation  with  plenty  of  manure, 
no  matter  what  kind  or  how  rough.  At  the  same  time 
finely  rotted  manure  is  profitable.  There  is  one  thing  to 
be  borne  in  mind  in  the  producing  of  asparagus ;  you  can 't 
fertilize  too  much.  The  better  cultivated  and  the  more 
fertilizers  the  greater  will  be  the  quantity  and  the  better 
will  be  the  quality  produced.  We  plow  thoroughly  about 
three  times  a  year,  and  harrow  as  often,  and  in  the  cut- 
ting season  keep  the  weeds  out  with  hoes." 

The  method  of  alternately  opening  and  covering  the 
rows  is  somewhat  conditioned  upon  the  local  soil  and  rain- 
fall. The  looser  the  soil  and  the  lighter  the  winter  rain, 
the  less  the  need  of  such  operation,  because  in  such  situa- 
tions the  heat  readily  penetrates  and  the  roots  answer 
quickly  without  uncovering,  which  may  too  greatly  facili- 
tate evaporation  and  thus  be  dangerous  in  dry  localities, 
even  in  the  rainy  season.  Where  these  conditions  prevail, 
thorough  cleaning,  plowing,  and  manuring  will  fit  the  field 
for  the  winter.  Mr.  Murdock  gives  this  advice : 

''In  the  fall  or  early  winter,  when  the  tops  have  turned 
brown,  the  ground  should  be  cleaned  and  all  rubbish 
burned,  for  if  delayed  the  seed  will  drop  and  get  scattered, 
which  will  come  up  and  may  prove  eventually  to  be  the 
worst  weed  the  grower  will  have  to  contend  with,  for  if 
allowed  to  grow  after  once  started  it  will  soon  fill  the 
whole  ground  with  a  mass  of  roots,  and  very  soon  spoil 
the  patch.  As  soon  as  the  ground  is  cleaned  the  whole 
field  should  be  well  cultivated,  and  coarse  manure  spread 
over  the  entire  surface,  so  that  the  rains  can  dissolve  and 
carry  down  the  soluble  plant  food  to  the  roots.  As  the 
period  of  rest  here  in  our  mild  and  warm  winters  is  very 
short,  with  this  strong  and  persisting  plant  no  delay 
should  be  indulged  in  in  furnishing  the  necessary  plant 
food." 


HARVESTING  ASPARAGUS.  185 

Quite  free  use  of  common  salt  is  desirable  for  asparagus, 
providing  the  land  is  not  naturally  saline,  as  is  the  case  in 
some  regions  where  it  is  largely  grown.  Cheap,  refuse 
salt  answers  well,  and  in  garden  practice  the  use  of  any 
old  brine  from  the  pickle  or  pork  barrel. 

The  surface  application  of  all  manures  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  rainy  season  seems  best  to  suit  California  con- 
ditions. 

Harvesting. — Growers  agree  in  advising  very  little,  if 
any,  cutting  the  second  year  in  the  field.  The  third  season 
should  be  very  productive  if  the  plants  have  been  gener- 
ously treated,  and  thence  onward  independently,  if  the 
strength  of  the  soil  can  be  kept  up.  Mr.  Murdock's  sug- 
gestion on  policies  in  cutting  are  as  follows: 

"Cut  all  the  shoots  clean  at  each  cutting  during  the 
season,  whether  they  are  large  enough  to  use  or  not,  for 
if  parts  of  stalks  are  allowed  ,to  grow  they  will  prevent 
other  buds  from  throwing  up  stalks,  and  make  the  season's 
cutting  short.  Keep  the  ground  well  cleaned  during  the 
harvesting  period,  and  if  you  have  been  liberal  with  your 
fertilizers  and  have  kept  your  ground  moist,  your  crop 
will  last  as  long  as  a  profitable  demand  is  likely  to  exist. 
Yet,  beware  of  prolonging  the  harveting  period  too  late, 
so  as  to  weaken  the  next  year's  crop,  as  the  nature  of  the 
crop  requires  that,  to  reproduce  annually  its  crop  of 
shoots,  something  must  be  left  to  grow  so  as  to  foster  the 
formation  of  new  shoots  and  a  new  set  of  buds.  If  your 
season  commences  early  you  should  lay  by  the  knife  later 
on  to  correspond;  then  let  all  the  tops  grow  and  do  not 
cull  out  the  large  shoots  afterward.  The  time  that  should 
elapse  between  cuttings  varies  in  different  soils,  some 
being  warmer  and  consequently  quicker  than  others ;  then 
again,  much  depends  on  the  weather ;  some  years  we  will 
have  warm  days  in  February,  which  will  necessitate  cut- 
ting twice  each  week,  and  it  may  be  followed  by  cold  days 
in  March,  when  the  cuttings  will  be  meager  once  a  week ; 
and  again  in  the  warm  days  of  May  it  may  require  three 


186  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES. 

cuttings  per  week  to  prevent  the  heads  from  bursting, 
which  spoils  it  for  market. ' ' 

There  is  variation  in  the  demand  for  color  in  the  pro- 
duct. The  local  demand  calls  for  a  certain  amount  of 
green;  the  canning  demand  is  for  white.  To  produce 
good,  tender,  white  asparagus  it  is  necessary  to  cover 
deeply  and  blanch  the  shoots  by  continued  growth  through 
a  thicker  layer  of  loose  earth,  as  has  been  described. 

Comparatively  little  asparagus  is  bunched  in  California, 
the  bulk  of  it  being  marketed  in  large  boxes  as  loose  stalks 
which  are  both  wholesaled  and  retailed  by  the  pound. 
For  distance  shipments  the  boxes  are  marked  so  that  the 
stems  stand  on  their  ends  just  as  they  grow,  for  they  are 
apt  to  bend  out  of  shape  if  lying  on  the  sides.  For  near 
marketing  in  the  height  of  the  season  the  asparagus  is 
usually  delivered  in  open  boxes  holding  forty  pounds  or 
more.  Where  bunching  is  Desirable,  it  can  be  neatly  done 
by  putting  the  stalks  point  downward  in  a  teacup,  tying 
the  bunch,  and  then  squaring  off  the  butts  with  a  sharp 
knife. 

The  asparagus  season  in  California  extends  from  Janu- 
ary until  June ;  although  later  cutting  is  sometimes  prac- 
ticed, it  is  not,  as  stated,  for  the  good  of  the  plants. 

The  Asparagus  Rust. — The  disease  made  a  vigorous  at- 
tack upon  California  asparagus  fields  about  five  years  ago. 
A  careful  study  of  the  disease  and  experimentation  con- 
ducted by  Prof.  R.  E.  Smith  demonstrated  that  the  trouble 
can  be  controlled  by  proper  use  of  sulphur  for  the  pro- 
tection of  the  top  growth  after  the  cutting  season.  Full 
information  can  be  had  from  the  University  Experiment 
Station  at  Berkeley. 

VARIETIES  CHIEFLY  GROWN  IN  CALIFORNIA. 

Conover's  Colossal:  an  old  standard  variety;  large  ten- 
der stalks  of  good  flavor.  Largely  grown  for  the  can- 
neries, which  use  it  almost  to  the  exclusion  of  other  sorts. 

Palmetto :  widely  grown  in  California ;  claimed  to  be 
earlier  than  Conover's,  also  more  productive  and  uniform 


VARIETIES  OF  ASPARAGUS.  187 

in  size ;  quality  fine  ;  especially  favored  for  fresh  shipments 
from  southern  California. 

Barr  's  Mammoth :  a  famous  Philadelphia  variety ;  very 
large  shoots  of  uniform  thickness ;  light  color  and  -few 
scales;  crisp,  early  and  fine.  Very  highly  approved  in 
Orange  county. 

Columbian  Mammoth ;  largely  used  by  market  growers, 
large,  white,  handsome,  holding  color  well;  very  produc- 
tive. 


CHAPTER  XIV. 
BEANS. 

The  Broad  Bean. — Vicia  fdba. 

French,  feve;  German,  garten-bohnen ;  Flemish,  platte- 
boon ;  Dutch,  tuin  boonen ;  Danish,  valske  bonner ;  Italian, 
fava;  Spanish,  haba;  Portuguese,  fava. 

The  Kidney  Bean. — PJiaseolus  vulgaris. 

French,  haricot ;  German,  bohne ;  Flemish  and  Dutch, 
boon;  Danish,  havebonnen;  Italian,  faginolo;  Spanish, 
frijole;  Portuguese,  feijao. 

The  Scarlet  Runner  Bean. — PJiaseolus  multiflorus. 

French,  haricots  d'Espagne;  German,  Arabische  bohne; 
Dutch,  Tursche  boon;  Italian,  fagiuolo  di  Spagna. 

The  Lima  Bean. — PJiaseolus  lunatus. 

French,  haricots  de  Lima;  German,  breitshottige  Lima 
bohne ;  Italian,  fagiuolo  di  Lima ;  Spanish,  judia  de  Lima. 

The  Black-eyed  Bean. — Vigna  sinensis. 

A  cow  pea. 

The  Soy  Bean. — Glycine  Jiispida. 

Of  the  vast  numbers  of  bean  varieties  known  to  horti- 
culture, California  grows  but  very  few.  Market  gardeners 
of  different  nationalities,  ministering  to  their  compatriots 
among  our  citizens,  have  brought  to  California  many  va- 
rieties which  they  esteemed  in  their  old  homes  and  grow 
them  here  in  limited  quantities,  but  the  general  markets 
and  the  gardens  and  fields  of  Americans  can  show  but  few 
sorts.  This  is  due  in  part  to  the  indisposition  of  the  people 
to  try  culinary  experiments  and  in  part  to  the  fact  that 
some  varieties  have  shown  peculiar  climatic  adaptations 
and  are  therefore  better  from  a  grower's  point  of  view. 
But  though  few  varieties  are  grown,  some  of  them  are 
grown  on  a  very  large  scale — to  such  an  extent,  in  fact, 


FIELD  CULTURE  OF  BEANS.  189 

that  five  counties  on  our  southern  coast  win  for  California 
the  distinction  of  being  the  greatest  Lima  bean  producing 
country  of  the  world.  The  California  bean  product  in 
1909  was  about  two  and  one-half  million  sacks,  of  which 
about  one-half  were  Limas. 

The  capacity  of  California  for  production  of  beans  is 
apparently  limited  only  by  the  extent  to  which  the  pro- 
duce can  be  profitably  sold.  Whenever  there  is  a  falling 
off  in  local  production  of  the  common  varieties  east  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains,  California  shipments  are  freely  made, 
and  when,  many  years  ago,  there  was  a  train-load  sold  for 
Boston,  California  embraced  not  only  the  profit  thereof, 
but  the  proud  satisfaction  that  she  was  really  doing  some- 
thing worth  while  for  the  maintenance  of  the  intellectual 
standard  of  the  country. 

FIELD  CULTURE  OF  BEANS  IN  CALIFORNIA. 

Though  California  has  great  bean  producing  capacity, 
the  area  well  suited  to  the  product  is  comparatively  lim- 
ited and  only  a  fraction  of  that  has  conditions  which  favor 
the  Lima  bean  as  a  field  crop.  Making  deductions  from 
years  of  local  experience  it  may  be  stated  that  the  summer 
heat  and  drought  of  the  interior  plains  are  offensive  to 
most  kinds  of  beans;  that  occasional  frosts  preclude  the 
winter  growth  of  the  crop  over  wide  areas  where  ordinary 
winter  temperature  and  moisture  would  favor  it ;  that 
summer  heat  and  drought  modified  by  exposure  to  ocean 
influences,  or  by  influences  existing  on  interior  river -bot- 
tom lands,  are  acceptable  to  the  plant  and  in  such  situa- 
tions is  the  chief  production.  From  a  commercial  point  of 
view  it  is  also  quite  important  that  towards  the  end  of  the 
season  there  should  be  a  reduction  of  the  amount  of  mois- 
ture in  the  soil,  so  that  the  plant  may  cease  its  growth  and 
mature  its  seed  before  the  fall  rains  make  the  harvesting 
difficult  and  stain  the  beans.  Favoring  conditions  are  thus 
seen  to  be  quite  exacting.  During  the  growing  period  of 
the  plant  there  must  be :  first,  no  frost ;  second,  the  least 
possible  duration  of  hot,  dry  winds,  and  a  moderated  at- 


190  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES. 

mospheric  aridity  generally ;  third,  adequate  moisture  both 
in  air  and  soil  to  maintain  healthful  vegetative  verdure 
followed  by  a  dry-soil-ripening  period  just  as  soon  as  the 
vines  have  filled  pods  enough  for  a  paying  crop. 

Local  Adaptations  to  Bean  Growing. — These  conditions 
are  prescribed  for  a  bean  crop  of  the  dry  seed.  They  are 
all  found  in  eminent  degree  on  the  coast  sides  of  three 
counties:  San  Luis  Obispo,  Santa  Barbara  and  Ventura, 
and  these  counties  ten  years  ago  produced  perhaps  nine- 
tenths  of  the  commercial  bean  crop  of  the  State.  Of  course 
extensions  of  the  region  in  other  counties  both  north  and 
south  along  the  coast  have  similar  conditions,  and  have 
recently  developed  a  large  product.  Favorable  conditions, 
however,  disappear  wit*h  greater  rapidity  toward  the  in- 
terior. Each  of  the  three  counties  mentioned  is  disposed 
on  both  sides  of  ridges  of  the  Coast  Range  mountains.  The 
ocean-side  lands  produce  the  beans:  the  interior  valleys 
of  the  same  counties,  perhaps  not  over  15  miles  away,  are 
beanless.  The  mountain  ridges  exclude  the  ocean  breeze 
and  the  occasional  fogs  and  mists,  and  bean  plants  would 
perish  from  dry  heat  before  a  crop  could  be  made.  On 
the  other  hand,  on  the  ocean  side  of  the  mountains,  beans 
are  planted  in  May,  after  the  rains  are  practically  over, 
and  the  ocean  tempers  heat  and  furnishes  moisture  to  the 
air,  so  that,  by  conservation  of  soil-water  by  good  culti- 
vation, the  crop  is  often  made  without  a  drop  of  rain  from 
seed  to  harvest. 

On  the  moist  or  irrigated  lands  of  the  interior  where 
heat  and  atmospheric  aridity  are  tempered  by  evaporation 
from  large  supplies  of  fresh  water  or  moist  soil,  there  are 
also  conditions  which  suit  some  varieties  of  beans  very 
well,  and  constantly  increasing  crops  are  made.  On  in- 
terior lowlands,  however,  there  is  sometimes  a  summer 
rising  of  moisture  from  rivers,  bank-full  from  melting 
mountain  snows  or  other  sources,  which  interferes  with 
proper  ripening  of  the  beans  by  pushing  the  vegetative 
growth  of  the  plants  when  they  should  be  maturing  a  crop 
already  formed.  If,  then,  early  rains  come,  the  bean 


PLANTING  BEANS.  191 

grower  is  apt  to  be  caught  with  his  work  unfinished  and 
his  beans  stained  or  sprouting.  However,  these  troubles 
are  not  serious  enough  to  cause  the  forsaking  of  the  crop, 
and  in  an  occasional  year  of  drought,  when  the  southern 
coast  counties  do  not  get  rainfall  enough  to  make  their  full 
crop,  the  grower  on  the  interior  lowlands  records  a  good 
profit. 

The  extension  of  the  bean  area  of  California  during  the 
last  decade  and  the  relative  production  of  the  different 
regions  of  the  several  leading  commercial  beans  are  seen 
in  the  following,  condensed  from  the  bean  report  for  1909 
of  Mr.  J.  B.  Meloche  of  San  Francisco : 

Sacramento     San  Joa-     Central    Southern 


valley.  < 
Large  White  .  .  .   230,000 
Small  Whites...     15,000 
Pink   145  Oftft 

juin  valley. 
234,000 

coast. 
45,000 
125,000 
28,000 

coast. 
24,000 
11,000 
15,000 

Totals. 
533,000 
151,000 
370,000 
86,000 
190,000 
1,200,000 

182,000 
26,000 
78,000 

Bayo    .... 

60,000 

Blackeye, 
Lima   .... 

etc...     40,000 

22,000 

50,000 
1,200,000 

Totals    490,000       520,000       220,000    1,300,000      2,530,200 

The  foregoing  is  the  product  in  standard  sacks  of  each 
kind,  the  weight  of  the  sacks  in  each  case  being  as  fol- 
lows :  Large  White,  92  Ibs. ;  Small  White,  90  Ibs. ;  Pink,  87 
Ibs. ;  Bayo,  85  Ibs. ;  Blackeye,  80  Ibs ;  Lima,  75  Ibs.  The 
total  acreage  in  1909  was  estimated  at  130,000  acres,  which 
would  give  an  average  acre-yield  of  about  twenty  sacks. 

Soil  for  Beans. — A  rich  sandy  soil,  if  it  can  be  kept 
moist  enough,  is  best  suited  to  the  growth  of  beans,  and 
dry,  hot,  sandy  soil  is  the  worst,  but  even  on  sand  near 
the  beach,  fair  crops  are  sometimes  made  by  the  help  of 
aerial  moisture  and  coolness.  The  plant  does  not  require 
a  very  great  amount  of  moisture,  if  heat  and  atmospheric 
aridity  are  not  too  great,  but  insists  upon  a  certain 
amount.  Crops  have  been  lost  by  choosing  land  that  was 
too  wet.  But  though  a  light  soil  seems  to  best  suit  the 
plant,  it  can  be  successfully  grown  on  any  good  garden 
soil,  providing  good  cultivation  is  given  and  the  land 
kept  from  baking  and  drying  out.  With  adequate  care  in 


THE 
UNIVERSITY 


192  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES. 

this  regard,  very  good  garden  crops  are  grown  even  in 
adobe  soil,  but  the  commercial  bean  crops  are  grown  on 
light  soils  because  there  are  obvious  cultural  advantages 
in  dealing  with  such  soils. 

Preparation  of  Land  for  Beans, — As  our  chief  crops  of 
beans  are  grown  without  irrigation  on  light  soils,  in 
regions  of  moderate  rainfall,  the  preparation  of  the  soil 
should  begin  at  the  opening  of  the  rainy  season,  so  as  to 
prepare  the  land  for  receiving  and  retaining  the  maxi- 
mum amount  of  the  rain  that  falls.  Growth  of  weeds  after 
harvesting  the  beans  should  be  prevented  by  cultivation, 
because  weeds  draw  upon  moisture  and  would  produce 
seed  for  more  weeds.  This  cultivation  also  opens  the  sur- 
face to  absorb  the  early  rains.  When  the  soil  is  well 
moistened  by  rain,  usually  not  later  than  January,  a  good 
plowing  is  given,  and  after  that  the  chisel-toothed  culti- 
vator and  the  harrow  or  other  tool  fitted  to  break  up  all 
compacting  of  the  soil  at  or  below  the  surface,  are  used  at 
short  intervals  through  the  winter  to  prevent  evaporation, 
and  retain  moisture  near  the  surface.  There  is  some  varia- 
tion in  winter  practice,  as  some  plow  deeply,  some  turn  a 
shallow  furrow,  and  some  rely  wholly  upon  the  chisel 
cultivator,  which  works  as  deep  as  shallow  plowing.  In 
all  cases  the  end  in  view  is  the  same,  to  bring  the  land  to 
planting  time  with  moisture  retained  and  mellow  to  re- 
ceive the  seed. 

Time  of  Planting. — Hints  of  this  consideration  have  al- 
ready been  given  to  illustrate  other  points.  As  a  general 
conclusion  it  may  be  added  that  California  experience 
clearly  points  to  undesirability  of  early  planting  simply 
to  keep  abreast  of  the  calendar.  The  bush  beans  are 
hardier  than  the  climbers  and  can  be  safely  planted  earlier, 
but  there  is  nothing  to  be  gained  in  planting  either  in  ad- 
vance of  a  good  condition  of  warmth  and  moisture  in  the 
soil.  Rather  than  trust  the  seed  to  the  soil  which  is  too 
cold  or  too  wet,  it  is  better  to  wait  a  little,  kill  the  weeds 
by  a  shallow  working,  place  the  seed  deep  enough  to  in- 
sure its  contact  with  moisture  and  then  trust  to  the  more 


A  LARGE  BEAN  FIELD.  193 

rapid  growth  of  the  plant  to  make  up  for  the  delay.  This 
it  will  usually  do,  and  will  shoot  ahead  so  that  it  will  be 
of  good  size  for  cultivation  by  the  time  the  weeds  need 
another  cutting.  Just  the  time  when  the  proper  soil  con- 
ditions may  be  expected  to  arrive  will  differ  in  the  differ- 
ent localities,  according  to  local  rainfall  and  spring  tem- 
peratures, the  beginning  of  the  frost-free  period,  the  na- 
ture of  the  soil,  etc.  As  a  generalization,  however,  it  may 


TWO  HUNDRED  AND  FORTY-ACRE  BEAN  FIELD, 
SALINAS  VALLEY. 

be  put  at  May  1  to  May  15  on  the  coast,  with  a  range  of 
May  1  to  June  1  for  interior  lowlands  in  the  central  and 
northern  parts  of  the  State — chiefly  to  allow  most  lands 
to  come  into  planting  condition. 

As  to  condition  of  soil  and  weather  at  planting  Lima 
beans,  it  may  be  said  that  ample  heat  in  connection  with 
soil  moisture  is  necessary  to  start  this  variety,  and  plant- 
ing is  rushed  during  a  warm  spell  to  insure  these  condi- 


194  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES. 

tions.  A  rain  after  planting  is  counted  a  detriment,  for 
if  the  temperature  of  the  soil  falls  too  low  the  seed  is  apt 
to  rot.  Besides  a  shower  means  more  weeds,  and  some 
large  growers  count  it  cheaper  to  plow  up  the  field  and 
replant  than  to  clean  out  the  weeds  in  the  rows.  Small 
growers,  however,  usually  undertake  the  hoeing  rather 
than  sacrifice  the  plant  if  the  stand  is  a  good  one. 

Manner  of  Planting. — All  commercial  crops  of  beans, 
whether  of  bush  or  running  varieties,  are  grown  in  rows. 
The  planting  is  done  with  machines  of  different  makes 
and  sizes,  though  usually  planting  from  two  to  four  rows 
at  a  time.  Depth  is  determined  by  the  character  of  the 
soil  and  the  season.  The  bean  must  be  placed  in  moist 
soil,  and  if  the  surface  is  light  and  prone  to  dry  out 
quickly,  the  greater  depth  is  given,  but  the  bean  does  not 
endure  as  deep  covering  as  some  other  large  seed.  In  a 
moist  surface  an  inch  will  do,  but  in  very  light  surfaces 
two  inches  is  better.  In  some  cases  even  a  little  more  is 
desirable.  It  must  be  remembered  that  a  few  days' 
moisture  must  be  assured  to  the  seed  to  allow  it  to  take 
hold  of  the  soil. 

In  light  soils  liable  to  strong  winds,  the  planter  should 
run  at  right  angles  to  the  course  of  the  wind,  for  it  has 
been  observed  that  the  sand  is  more  easily  shifted  when 
the  wind  has  the  lengthwise  course  of  the  drills. 

Distance  is  dependent  upon  the  variety.  Lima  beans  are 
usually  placed  in  rows  about  forty  inches  apart,  with  the 
planter  rigged-  to  drop  seed  at  an  average  of  about  ten 
inches  apart,  in  the  row.  Small  beans  of  various  kinds  are 
given  two  to  two  and  one-half  feet  between  the  rows,  and 
about  four  inches  distance  in  the  row. 

Cultivation. — Frequent  cultivation  with  knife-shaped 
teeth  is  practiced  in  the  best  bean  soils,  to  kill  the  weeds 
and  loosen  the  surface,  until  the  running  varieties  cover 
the  space  so  that  they  are  injured  by  cultivation.  The 
vines  then  cover  the  ground  and  check  evaporition  and  the 
crop  is  left  to  its  own  course.  With  bush  varieties  longer 
and  deeper  cultivation  is  desirable,  at  least  if  the  ground 


THRESHING  BEANS.  195 

is  apt  to  become  compact,  so  that  the  earth-mulch  de- 
scribed in  the  chapter  on  cultivation  is  maintained. 

Gathering. — Gathering  the  crop  cannot  usually  wait  un- 
til all  the  beans  have  ripened,  for  fear  of  shelling  out  the 
earlier  maturing  pods  of  some  varieties,  and  for  fear  also 
of  the  fall  rains  already  mentioned.  Cutting  should  begin 
when  the  grower's  judgment  tells  him  he  is  about  midway 
between  the  two  dangers.  The  date  will  of  course  vary 
in  different  localities.  The  Lima  bean  has  a  longer  grow- 
ing season,  and  on  the  south  coast  is  liable  to  encounter 
serious  hot  spells  in  August  or  September  after  other 
beans  are  matured  beyond  injury.  The  heat  shrivels  the 
immature  pods  and  lessens  the  crop. 

Hand  pulling  or  cutting  of  the  vines,  or  plowing  out,  is 
no  longer  practiced  in  large  fields.  A  cutter  operated  by 
horse  power  is  now  used.  Two  planks  are  hitched  side  to 
side,  about  two  feet  apart.  From  each,  on  the  outside, 
projects  a  steel  blade,  some  two  feet,  fastened  to  the  bot- 
tom of  the  so-called  sled.  Two  or  three  horses  are  hitched 
to  the  sled,  which  passes  comfortably  between  two  rows 
of  beans;  the  blades  of  steel  running  from  one  to  two 
inches  under  the  surface,  sloping  backward,  cut  off  the 
vines  beneath  the  surface  or  loosen  them  so  that  they  are 
readily  gathered  with  pitchforks  and  are  thrown  into 
heaps. 

There  are  some  local  variations  in  the  form  of  the  har- 
vester, and  in  some  cases  an  iron-frame  cutter  constructed 
on  the  model  of  a  V-shaped  cultivator  with  guiding  wheel 
is  used. 

The  beans  are  allowed  to  be  in  the  field  in  small  piles  for 
two  to  four  weeks,  according  to  the  curing  quality  of  the 
local  climate,  until  the  vines  are  well  dried.  This  not  only 
facilitates  the  opening  of  the  pods,  but  saves  the  beans 
from  staining  by  green  leaves  and  the  damp  dust  they 
gather. 

Threshing  Floors. — The  early  method  of  threshing  was 
by  use  of  the  threshing  floor,  and  it  is  still  practiced  or 
held  in  view  to  prevent  excessive  charges  by  machine 


196  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES. 

owners.  It  is  tedious  work,  requires  many  animals  and 
exposes  the  beans  to  greater  injury  by  early  rains.  A 
threshing  floor  is  made  by  wetting  down  a  circular  piece 
of  ground  about  sixty  or  eighty  feet  across,  tramp  it  with 
horses  and  wagon  until  smooth  and  hard ;  then  cover  the 
floor  with  straw  for  a  few  days  until  it  is  dry,  when  it  is 
ready  for  the  beans.  The  first  flooring  of  beans  is  put  on 
deep,  so  the  horses '  hoofs  do  not  cut  the  floor.  Care  should 
be  taken  all  the  time  during  the  threshing  not  to  cut  the 
floor.  Two  or  three  big  wagon  loads  of  beans  are  placed 
in  a  ring  on  this  floor  during  very  dry;  clear  weather. 
Formerly  horses  attached  to  light  wagons  were  driven 
over  the  beans  (usually  two  or  three  teams  at  a  time),  till 
they  were  all  shelled  from  the  pods.  The  vines  are  then 
thrown  off  and  more  beans  from  the  field  brought  on. 
This  process  is  continued  until  there  are  many  tons  of 
beans  on  the  floor  under  those  that  are  being  threshed  out. 
After  this  the  whole  mass  of  chaff  and  beans  is  run 
through  winnowing  and  screening  machines  and  the  beans 
placed  in  sacks  of  seventy-five  to  eighty  pounds  each  and 
are  ready  for  market.  Of  late  years  the  teams  on  the  floor 
are  attached  to  disc  machines  instead  of  wagons,  which 
greatly  facilitates  the  work. 

In  suitable  weather  tramping  is  a  less  expensive  method 
than  by  machinery,  but  there  is  far  greater  danger  from 
sudden  storms  of  rain,  as  beans  on  the  tramping  floor  are 
in  the  worst  possible  shape  in  wet  weather.  Beans  in  the 
field  can  stand  an  inch  or  two  of  rain  without  much  in- 
jury, if  allowed  to  thoroughly  dry  before  threshing.  But 
beans  wet  on  a  tramping  floor  while  mixed  with  pulverized 
leaves  are  irreparably  damaged,  being  stained  and  heated 
before  it  is  possible  to  clean  them.  Every  farmer  who 
tramps  out  his  beans  should  be  provided  with  sheets  of 
canvas  sufficient  to  cover  all  unwinnowed  or  sacked  beans 
liable  to  be  left  out  during  a  shower.  Tramping  is  a 
tedious  process,  but  it  has  some  advantages.  It  is  the 
resource  ever  at  hand  to  meet  the  exacting  charges  of 
machine  owners.  And  besides,  during  extremely  dry 


BEAN  CLEANING.  197 

weather  beans  can  be  tramped  well,  the  pods  being  dry 
and  brittle,  while  the  vines  are  still  green  and  tough,  a 
condition  in  which  a  machine  cannot  work  in  them  at  all. 
The  energetic  farmer  can  thus  often  secure  a  large  por- 
tion of  his  crop  before  a  machine  could  thresh  them  even 
if  he  could  get  it.  So  it  will  probably  be  many  years  be- 
fore tramping  is  entirely  abandoned. 

Machine  Threshing. — For  many  years  attempts  have 
been  made  to  use  modified  grain  threshers  for  separating 
beans.  At  first  there  was  too  great  a  percentage  of 
cracked  beans,  but  recently  machine  work  has  become 
more  satisfactory.  In  the  case  of  one  grower  farming 
2300  acres  to  beans  in  Ventura  county,  the  threshing  ma- 
chine used  is  a  large  "Minnesota  Chief,"  which  is 
equipped  with  a  good  engine  and  thirty  men.  The  beans 
are  gathered  into  header  wagons,  with  beds  ten  feet  wide 
and  sixteen  feet  long.  One  side  of  the  bed  is  considerably 
higher  than  the  other,  and  a  large  and  strong  net  is  spread 
over  the  entire  bed,  fastened  on  one  side,  and  into  which 
the  beans  are  forked.  This  is  driven  to  the  threshing  ma- 
chine, where  a  derrick  lifts  up  the  lower  side  of  the  net 
and  tumbles  the  contents  onto  a  large  platform,  after 
which  the  straw  and  beans  are  fed  into  the  machine  with 
pitchforks.  It  requires  eight  header  wagons  to  keep  the 
machine  busy.  Fifteen  hundred  sacks,  averaging  seventy 
pounds  each,  or  one  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  pounds, 
are  considered  a  good  day's  work. 

The  machine-threshed  beans  have  also  to  be  recleaned 
before  they  are  marketed,  and  are  broken  so  much  that 
they  are  never  fit  for  the  seed  trade.  Yet  there  is  one 
great  advantage  with  the  steam  thresher.  The  rainy  season 
is  approaching,  and  a  shower  is  lable  to  fall  in  October 
while  the  threshing  process  is  in  full  blast,  so  that  any 
beans  that  are  caught  on  the  floors  are  ruined  if  they  do 
not  manage  to  cover  them  in  some  way,  while  by  the  ma- 
chine process  all  beans  are  sacked  as  they  are  threshed. 

Bean  Cleaning, — It  is  imperative  now  that  beans  should 
be  put  into  good  marketable  condition.  When  prices 


198  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES. 

were  high  the  quality  and  condition  of  the  beans  did  not 
materially  interfere  with  the  sales,  but  in  times  of  plenty, 
the  best  is  hardly  good  enough,  and  the  most  scrupulous 
attention  is  given  as  to  the  quality.  To  insure  the  most 
ready  sale  at  best  prices,  every  grower  should  have  the 
reputation  of  putting  his  beans  in  the  sack  for  sale  in 
thoroughly  sound  and  clean  condition,  even  by  hand- 
picking  if  necessary.  A  dirty  lot  of  beans  from  any 
locality  injures  not  the  grower  alone,  but  casts  suspicion 
on  all  the  product  of  that  place.  In  preventing  this, 
associated  effort  of  growers  has  accomplished  much. 

Rotation  of  Crops. — It  has  been  the  experience  of  bean 
growers  hitherto  that  many  crops  of  beans  can  be  grown 
successfully  on  the  same  soil  without  great  difference  in 
the  yield — that  is,  the  land  does  not  clearly  show  wear.  On 
the  other  hand,  however,  a  bean  crop  improves  barley, 
potatoes  or  other  succeeding  crop.  This  might  be  expected 
from  what  is  now  known  of  the  power  of  the  legumes  to 
fix  atmospheric  nitrogen  by  means  of  their  roots.  Our 
best  bean  soils  are  so  rich  naturally  that  they  are  able  to 
endure  a  long  cropping  period  and  growers  are  apt  to 
look  upon  the  soil  as  a  constant  factor  and  wish  that  the 
weather  could  be  placed  in  the  same  category. 

VARIETY  FOR  FIELD  CULTURE. 

The  Lima  Bean. — The  Lima  is  the  great  bean  of  Cali- 
fornia so  far  as  the  outside  world  is  concerned,  because 
though  other  beans  are  grown  everywhere,  five  southern 
coast  counties  seem  especially  adapted  by  favoring  local 
climate  to  the  growth  of  this  rather  exacting  variety,  and 
the  product  of  Limas  in  this  region  is  nearly  one-half  of 
the  total  bean  production  of  California.  The  variety 
grown  is  the  old  "Large  Lima,"  well  known  to  the  trade 
and  well  adapted  to  the  region,  and  however  popular  the 
dwarf  Limas  may  become  as  garden  varieties  they  do  not 
promise  to  supplant  the  old  sort  in  its  stronghold.  Though 
the  Lima  is  a  running  bean,  no  support  is  given  it  in  field 
culture.  It  is  safe  and  comfortable  reclining  on  the  drv. 


BEANS  IN  CALIFORNIA.  199 

warm  soil,  with  its  verdure  always  freshened  by  the 
breezes  of  the  Pacific,  which  lies  in  plain  sight  of  many 
fields.  Thousands  of  acres  are  thus  disposed  green  and 
level  as  a  meadow  to  the  distant  viewer — the  scene  un- 
marred  by  fence  or  other  obstruction,  for  the  fields  are 
usually  subject  to  no  unwelcome  intrusion  except  hot 
blasts  of  air  which  rarely  beat  back  the  ocean  breeze  and 
harm  the  plant.  In  most  years  without  a  drop  of  summer 
rain  and  held  in  heart  by  the  insensible  ocean  vapor  and 
occasionally  by  fog  and  mist,  the  Lima  bean  yields  the 
grower  an  average  of  a  ton  to  the  acre  of  clear  product, 
and  sometimes  does  more  than  fifty  per  cent  better  than 
that. 

During  recent  years  the  price  of  Lima  beans  has 
been  less  than  formerly,  but  there  still  remains  a  margin, 
because  production  can  be  accomplished  at  less  cost 
through  improved  methods  and  machinery.  There  is  also 
an  association  of  Lima  bean  growers  which  is  assisting 
producers  to  secure  all  that  the  market  will  warrant  and 
has  exerted  a  wholesome  influence.  Lima  bean  straw  is  a 
very  important  by-product,  as  it  sells  readily  for  stock 
feeding  at  from  $2  to  $5  per  ton,  according  to  the  demand 
for  it  in  different  years. 

The  Small  White  Bean. — This  is  the  accepted  local  name 
for  the  variety  which  is  called  the  Navy  bean  at  the  East. 
The  seed  was  brought  from  the  State  of  New  York  as  far 
back  as  1852.  The  Small  White  has  a  polished  or  var- 
nished surface  which  prevents  rapid  absorption  of  mois- 
ture. This  not  only  especially  fits  it  for  shipping  by  sea 
and  gives  it  great  keeping  quality,  but  it  enables  the  bean 
to  hold  its  form  through  cooking  processes.  Large  quan- 
tities are  shipped  to  Boston,  where  they  are  used  in  pre- 
paring "Boston  canned  beans,"  which  are  sold  all  over 
the  United  States.  The  Small  White  bean  is  chiefly  grown 
in  Monterey,  San  Luis  Obispo  and  Santa  Barbara  counties. 

The  Pea  Bean. — This  is  another  small  white  bean  which 
was  introduced  into  California  early  in  the  fifties.  The 
variety  has  a  very  thin  transparent  skin  which  admits 


200  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES. 

moisture  readily  and  is  apt  to  disintegrate  in  cooking.  The 
Pea  bean  is  grown  along  the  Sacramento  river  and  in 
Ventura  county,  but  not  in  large  amount. 

The  Large  White  Bean. — This  variety  is  also  known  as 
the  Lady  Washington.  At  the  East  it  is  rated  in  the  trade 
as  a  medium  bean;  it  is  a  little  larger  than  the  Small 
White.  The  seed  was  introduced  from  the  East  in  early 
times.  The  variety  is  chiefly  grown  in  the  Sacramento  and 
San  Joaquin  river  counties  and  in  less  amounts  in  the 
central  coast  counties. 

The  Bayo  Bean. — There  are  two  varieties — the  Bayo 
Grande  and  the  Bayo  Chico.  The  former  is  large,  the  lat- 
ter small ;  both  are  brown.  The  seed  came  from  Chile  in 
1849.  The  Bayo  is  largely  grown  in  the  Sacramento  and 
San  Joaquin  river  regions.  There  is  also  a  dark  red  bean 
which  was  brought  from  Chile,  and  usually  named  from 
its  color. 

The  Pink  Bean. — This  variety  is  sufficiently  described 
by  its  name.  It  has  been  in  California  so  long  that  its 
origin  is  unknown,  and  our  best  bean  merchants  have 
never  seen  it  from  any  other  source  than  this  State.  It  is 
a  first-class  bean,  and  the  citizens  of  Spanish  descent  pre- 
fer it  to  all  other  varieties,  and  it  is  largely  grown  for  their 
use  in  San  Luis  Obispo  county.  It  is  chiefly  grown  in  Sac- 
ramento river  lands  and  is,  perhaps,  the  most  successful 
variety  in  the  San  Joaquin  valley  under  conditions  of  heat 
and  drought  which  do  not  suit  other  varieties. 

The  Butter  Bean. — This  is  the  local  name  for  what  is 
known  as  the  "Flageolet"  in  France,  whence  the  seed  was 
brought  to  this  State.  It  is  large,  white  and  flattish.  It  is 
going  out  of  production  here,  as  the  seed  is  apparently 
running  out,  the  size  being  only  half  that  of  35  or  40  years 
ago. 

The  Black-eye  Bean. — It  is  thought  that  this  variety 
came  from  Virginia.  Its  production  is  largely  restricted 
to  the  Sacramento  and  San  Joaquin  river  sections  and 
Ventura  county.  This  and  others  of  the  "cow  pea"  group 


GARDEN  BEANS.  201 

are  used  to  a  certain  extent  to  make  a  green  growth  for 
plowing  under  in  citrus  orchards. 

The  Soy  Bean. — This  Asiatic  species,  which  has  many 
varieties,  is  grown  to  a  limited  amount  by  Chinese  and 
Japanese  on  river  bottom  and  reclaimed  lands,  both  for 
forage  and  food. 

The  Horse  Bean. — A  broad  bean,  chiefly  grown  by  Por- 
tuguese in  the  San  Francisco  Bay  region :  hardy  and  pro- 
lific, making  free  winter  growth  where  frosts  are  light; 
sometimes  in  demand  for  the  debasement  of  coffee. 

GARDEN  CULTURE  OF  BEANS. 

Much  that  has  been  said  about  the  field  growth  of  beans 
applies  to  the  garden  culture.  Condition  of  soil  and  time 
for  planting  are  practically  the  same,  and  so  are  the  char- 
acters of  the  growing  season,  except  that  the  gardener 
cares  little  for  the  maturing  of  his  crop,  but  prefers  a 
green  succession.  A  condition  of  late  summer  moisture, 
then,  that  would  be  a  serious  trouble  in  the  field,  is  an  ad- 
vantage in  the  garden.  For  a  product  of  beans  as  a  green 
vegetable,  the  drying  out  which  promotes  maturity  is  to 
be  prevented,  and  if  this  is  successfully  done,  either  upon 
naturally  moist  or  irrigated  land,  the  bean  plants  will  con- 
tinue their  yield  of  green  pods  until  frost  cuts  them  down. 
As  California  has,  as  a  rule,  a  very  long  frostless  season, 
the  bearing  season  of  green  pluckings  may  cover  several 
months. 

In  frostless  places,  or  in  places  of  light  frosts,  where  the 
grower  affords  slight  protective  covering,  the  bean  con- 
tinues its  growth  and  bearing  into  the  winter  and  vines  of 
some  varieties  assert  their  perennial  character.  Even 
where  the  frosts  cut  down  the  top,  some  of  the  phaseolus 
varieties  maintain  their  life  and  start  again  freely  from 
the  old  roots  when  the  spring  warmth  invites  activity. 

The  continued  growth  of  the  bean  late  in  the  fall,  in  the 
absence  of  frost,  cometimes  affords  a  better  late  than  early 
crop,  because  certain  insects  which  destroy  the  early 
blossoms  cease  from  their  labors,  or  because  too  high  heat 


202  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES. 

no  longer  blights  the  bloom.  It  is  often  the  reward  of  the 
amateur  gardener,  who  promotes  late  growth  of  his  bean 
plants  by  continued  irrigation,  to  gather  ample  supplies 
of  tender  pods  when  less  diligent  growers  have  none.  Mid- 
summer bean  planting  on  moist  interior  lands  is  also  a 
good  practice,  as  it  gives  the  plant  a  growing  season  in  the 
fall  when  the  hot  and  dry  summer  conditions  are  relaxed. 

The  planting  of  beans  in  frostless  situations  in  the  fall 
for  a  winter  crop  is,  of  course,  a  limited  enterprise,  and 
attended  by  considerable  risk,  because  never  having  a 
frost,  means  hardly  ever,  and  yet  good  returns  are  often 
made  in  a  few  places  already  designated  in  the  chapters 
on  climates  and  the  planting  season. 

The  winter  preparation  for  field  planting  on  the  light 
soils  that  are  mainly  used  for  that  purpose  will  do  for  the 
same  soils  and  situations  for  garden  growth,  but  where 
beans  have  to  go  upon  rather  heavier  soil  in  regions  of 
heavier  rains,  it  is  necessary  to  give  more  thorough 
spring  cultivation  to  overcome  the  compacting  of  the  soil 
by  the  rain,  and  make  it  suitably  mellow  for  the  crop.  For 
this  purpose,  spring  plowing  twice,  the  second  shallower 
than  the  first,  and  good  harrowing  following  the  second 
plowing,  are  desirable.  All  this  work  should  be  done  when 
the  soil  works  freely,  and  only  then. 

In  rainfall  garden  practice,  where  moisture  is  short,  the 
land  should  lie  in  shape  for  taking  in  water  all  during  the 
earlier  part  of  the  rainy  season,  and  not  be  cropped  nor 
left  hard  for  the  spring  working,  but  where  moisture  is 
ample,  the  land  may  carry  first  a  fall-planted  crop  of 
hardy  vegetables  for  winter  use,  provided  this  crop  is 
cleared  away  by  February  and  the  land  put  into  condi- 
tion to  store  up  the  spring  rains  for  the  use  of  the  beans. 
This  practice  depends  upon  the  likelihood  of  the  late  rains 
being  generous,  and  the  soil  being  retentive  enough. 

Bush  Beans. — Varieties  of  this  class  are  hardier  than 
most  climbing  beans  and  are  safely  planted  earlier — per- 
haps from  one  to  two  weeks  usually,  but  they  should  not 
be  planted  until  the  soil  becomes  warm  and  loses  its  ex- 


GARDEN  BEAN  VARIETIES.  203 

cess  of  water.  For  hand-hoeing  the  rows  can  be  15  to  18 
inches  apart,  and  for  horse  cultivation  two  feet.  About 
four  inches  apart  in  the  drill,  and  covered  from  one  to  two 
inches,  according  to  soil  and  season,  is  ordinary  practice. 
The  plants  can  also  be  grown  in  hills.  If  the  ground  is  in 
good  condition  the  seed  can  be  planted  before  the  lighter 
frosts  of  spring  are  all  over,  and  by  slight  covering  they 
can  be  carried  through.  The  bush  varieties  will  endure 
more  cold  and  more  heat  than  the  climbing  sorts,  but  any 
considerable  planting  should  wait  until  the  frost  danger 
for  the  locality  is  over.  Later  plantings  should  be  made 
at  short  intervals,  for  succession  and  irrigation  must  usu- 
ally be  resorted  to  quite  early  in  the  summer,  except  on 
moist  land  or  on  the  immediate  coast. 

Bush  beans  are  usually  divided  into  two  groups :  those 
with  green  pods  and  those  with  waxen,  or  light  yellow 
pods.  The  following  are  favorites  in  this  State : 

Early  Mohawk,  hardy  and  early  for  early  chop,  large 
flattish  pods. 

Dwarf  Horticultural,  vigorous  grower,  large  leaves; 
pods  medium,  curved ;  beans,  pale  pink  marked  with  red. 

Burpee's  Stringless,  green  pod,  early,  straight,  roundish 
pod,  brittle  and  stringless. 

Extra  Early  Valentine,  said  to  be  fit  to  gather  in  35  to 
40  days  from  planting,  green  pod,  medium  sized,  fleshy, 
keeps  green  longer  than  most  kinds — a  favorite  in  the 
Sacramento  valley  and  popular  for  canning. 

Extra  Early  Refugee,  popular  with  early  vegetable  ship- 
pers, round  pods,  bright  green,  very  productive,  largely 
grown  in  Vacaville  and  other  early  regions. 

Long  Yellow  Six  Weeks,  pods  long,  early,  very  produc- 
tive, excellent  quality ;  popular  in  southern  California. 

Golden  Wax,  early,  strong  grower,  long  pods,  very  brit- 
tle and  stringless,  popular  in  the  Sacramento  valley,  coast 
valleys  and  southern  California. 

Davis  White  Wax,  broad  pods,  clear  light  yellow,  pro- 
ductive, tender  and  delicate  flavor. 

Wardell's  Kidney  Wax,   long,   flat   and  showy  tender 


204  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES. 

pods,  strong  grower,  prolific :  beans  shapely,  pure  white, 
with  purple  eye ;  early. 

Prolific  Black  Wax,  long  and  large  pods,  golden  color, 
very  productive,  bearing  early  and  through  a  long  season. 

Burpee's  Bush  Lima,  reported  by  California  growers  as 
the  best  of  the  dwarf  Limas. 

Broad  Beans. — These  beans  are  related  to  the  so-called 
horse  bean,  but  by  breeding  have  lost  much  of  the  strong 
flavor  of  the  horse  bean,  and  have  so  increased  in  size  of 
the  seed  that  they  are  several  times  larger  than  the  horse 
bean.  In  Europe  they  are  esteemed  as  a  highly  nutritious 
and  palatable  vegetable.  The  seeds  only  are  eaten  and  are 
prepared  for  table  in  much  the  same  manner  as  Lima 
beans.  As  Lima  beans  are  more  delicate  in  flavor  and 
nearly  always  available  in  California  markets  there  is  less 
chance  for  broad  beans  than  elsewhere,  and  yet  the  fact 
that  they  are  more  easily  grown  gives  them  claim  to  at- 
tention. The  plants  are  productive  and  will  flourish  in 
almost  any  locality.  The  seed  should  be  planted  -about 
three  inches  deep  in  double  rows,  eight  inches  between  the 
rows  forming  the  double  line,  four  inches  between  the 
plants  in  the  rows,  and  three  feet  between  the  double 
rows.  The  early  formation  of  seed  can  be  hastened  by  re- 
moving the  terminal  bud  of  the  plants  when  they  have 
reached  the  height  of  between  four  and  five  feet,  and  have 
produced  enough  flowers  to  insure  a  good  crop  of  pods. 
The  Green  Windsor  is  the  best  known  broad  bean. 

Climbing  Beans. — Pole  beans  are  usually  more  sus- 
ceptible to  heat  and  drought  than  the  better  bush  varie- 
ties, and  they  are  disappointing  in  other  ways.  Near  the 
coast,  however,  they  may  be  grown  and  trained  in  any 
way  the  grower  pleases,  from  a  six-foot  staff  to  a  whole 
wigwam  of  poles  and  strings.  Catalogues  of  California 
seedsmen  give  the  amateur  good  collections  to  select  from. 

Transplanted  Beans. — Beans  may  be  easily  grown  early 
in  moist  sand  in  a  protected  place  and  set  out  when  sev- 
eral inches  high  when  the  soil  and  air  are  fit  to  receive 
them.  The  best  way  to  get  a  good  start  in  a  family  garden 


GARDEN  BEAN  VARIETIES.  205 

is  the  method  of  Mr.  Adams,  described  in  the  chapter  on 
propagation  by  which  a  whole  hill  is  moved  from  under 
cover  to  open  ground  at  one  operation. 

Growing  Beans  in  the  Irrigated  Garden. — Beans  may  be 
irrigated  in  any  of  the  ways  described  for  garden  practice, 
according  to  the  character  of  the  soil.  They  will  stand 
flooding  of  the  ground,  if  it  is  done  at  sundown.  They  will 
also  grow  well  on  the  ridge  systems,  either  with  water 
above  or  below,  according  to  the  soil.  Shallow  planting 
should  be  done  when  the  ground  is  to  be  kept  moist  by 
irrigation. 


CHAPTER  XV. 

THE  BEET. 

The  Beet. — Beta  vulgaris. 

French,  betterave ;  German,  runkelrube ;  Dutch  and 
Flemish,  betwortel ;  Danish,  rodbede ;  Italian,  barbabie- 
tola;  Spanish,  remolacha;  Portuguese,  betarava. 

The  beet  as  a  garden  vegetable  is  taken  from  the  ground 
every  day  in  the  year  in  California.  It  can  be  sown  at 
almost  any  time,  and  at  all  stages  of  its  growth  is  un- 
injured by  any  temperature  which  is  experienced  in  Cali- 
fornia valleys.  Moisture  conditions  do,  however,  affect  its 
growth.  It  is  unwise  to  sow  the  seed  in  cold,  wet  ground, 
but  if  the  seedling  has  taken  hold  it  can  endure  extremes 
of  saturation  or  drought  for  a  long  period,  and  it  is  not 
injured  for  any  purpose  by  standing  where  it  has  grown 
for  a  considerable  time  after  it  has  reached  its  first  ma- 
turity. The  beet  is  counted,  however,  rather  a  coarse 
vegetable,  and  would  be  consigned  to  rather  a  lowly  place 
did  not  its  present  achievements  and  its  greater  promise 
as  a  source  of  sugar  give  it  commanding  importance. 
Though  our  people  are  somewhat  chary  about  putting  the 
boiled  beet-root  in  their  table  china,  they  do  not  hesitate 
to  instal  in  cut  glass  or  silver  bowls  the  solid  extract  of 
beet-root  in  the  form  of  sugar  cubes  or  granules.  The  in- 
dustrial importance  of  the  beet  includes  also  its  value  and 
availability  as  an  auxiliary  cattle  food,  and  it  is  all  the 
more  esteemed  for  that  purpose  because  in  our  climate  it 
needs  no  root-cellar  or  even  earth-covering,  but  is  pulled 
all  days  of  the  year,  fresh  and  succulent,  from  the  site  in 
which  the  seed  was  cast  months  before. 

THE  GARDEN  BEET. 
Though,  as  stated,  the  beet  is  hardy  under  all  our  con- 


GARDEN  BEETS.  207 

ditions,  it  needs  for  the  proper  germination  of  its  seed 
moist,  warm  ground,  and  it  makes  rapid  and  tender 
growth  with  the  same  soil  conditions.  In  cold,  wet  soil  or 
in  hot,  dry  land,  it  will  grow  slowly  and  will  be  tough  and 
of  inferior  flavor.  Though  it  is  true  that  beets  will  endure 
much  drought,  growing  slowly  and  rooting  deeply  on  land 
where  grain  and  hay  would  fall  and  subsequently,  with 
the  coming  of  the  fall  rains,  assume  more  active  growth 
and  reach  large  size  for  the  winter  feeding  of  stock,  it  is 
not  in  that  way  that  tender  and  sound-flavored  table  beets 
can  be  produced.  They  should  make  rapid  growth  from 
start  to  finish,  and  then  they  may  remain  in  their  places 
for  some  time  without  notable  loss  of  quality,  unless  the 
ground  is  heavy,  becomes  saturated  and  retains  water.  In 
fact,  some  growers  on  well-cultivated  upland  loams  claim 
that  the  beets  improve  in  the  soil  and  are  sweetest  and 
tenderest  just  before  sending  up  their  seed  stalks.  In  lo- 
calities with  excessive  rains,  it  is  often  desirable  to  gather 
beets  and  pack  them  away  in  dry  sand,  but  in  most  places 
open  air  winter  conditions  do  not  make  this  necessary. 
On  the  other  hand,  as  the  seed  may  be  almost  continuously 
planted  if  moisture  conditions  are  arranged,  small  plant- 
ing for  several  successions  should  be  the  rule  in  the  family 
or  sale  garden,  if  long  use  from  one  planting  shows  de- 
terioration. 

Garden  Culture. — Beets  may  be  grown  in  the  hand-hoed 
garden  in  rows  12  inches  apart,  or  even  nearer  than  that 
if  space  is  precious,  but  rows  for  horse  work  should  be  18 
inches  or  two  feet,  according  as  may  be  necessary  to  agree 
with  the  unit  of  distance  chosen  to  bring  the  rows  of  up- 
right growers  uniform  distances  apart  for  ease  of  culti- 
vation. The  small  varieties  popular  in  this  State  do  not 
need  that  distance,  perhaps,  but  all  sorts  of  spacing  is 
grievous  in  the  use  of  horse  tools. 

The  soil  for  beets  should  be  well  worked  to  allow  natural 
penetration,  for  the  beet  has  a  taproot  of  great  importance 
in  its  development.  The  seed  may  be  soaked  before  plant- 
ing if  the  ground  is  inclined  to  be  dry,  and  should  be  cov- 


208  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES. 

ered  from  three-quarters  of  an  inch  to  two  inches,  accord- 
ing as  the  soil  is  heavy  and  moist  or  light  and  dry.  In  late 
planting  the  seed  must  go  down  to  moisture,  and  there  is 
then  little  danger  of  rain  compacting  the  covering.  As 
for  time  of  planting,  it  may  be  done  any  time  when  the 
soil  is  moist  and  warm,  but  never  when  it  is  cold  or  wet. 
Seed  may  be  spaced  an  inch  in  the  drill  approximately,  but 
while  still  small  the  plants  should  be  thinned  to  six  or 
eight  inches.  The  sooner  this  is  done  after  the  plants  have 
reached  a  height  of  three  or  four  inches  the  better.  It  is 
quite  a  common  practice  to  allow  the  rows  to  grow  thickly 
until  the  thinnings  are  large  enough  for  greens.  The  prac- 
tice injures  the  surviving  beets,  for  they  never  reach  quite 
the  development  they  would  if  they  had  never  been 
crowded,  but  with  some  the  gain  of  the  greens  is  a  com- 
pensation. 

Varieties. — The  garden  beets  popular  in  California  for 
table  use  are  all  of  the  round  or  flat  shapes,  and  all  of  red 
color. 

The  Eclipse,  an  old  favorite,  is  still  of  wide  popularity. 
It  is  early  and  of  good  quality,  and  symmetrical,  round 
form. 

The  Extra  Early  Egyptian  is  of  flat,  turnip  shape,  very 
deep  color,  early,  tender  and  fine. 

Morse's  Improved  Blood  Turnip,  especially  selected  for 
style  and  quality,  deep  red,  green  tops. 

Crosby's  Egyptian,  of  flatter  form  than  Early  Egyptian, 
good  for  early  use,  but  maintains  tenderness  well  as  it  gets 
larger  size,  very  bright  clear  red  flesh. 

Edmunds'  Blood  Turnip  is  another  favorite  market  va- 
riety, round  and  smooth,  deep  color  and  good  quality. 

Early  Blood  Turnip  is  also  largely  grown.  It  is  round, 
good  form  and  quality. 

Long  Smooth  Blood  is  an  old  standard  variety  for  those 
who  like  beets  for  slicing.  It  roots  deeply  and  stands 
drought  well. 


GROWING  SUGAR  BEETS.  209 

THE  SUGAR  BEET  IN  CALIFORNIA. 

All  that  has  been  said  in  preceding  chapters  on  Cali- 
fornia climates  and  soils  has  direct  reference  to  the  ex- 
ceptional adaptation  of  the  State  to  the  growth  of  the 
sugar  beet  and  the  manufacture  of  beet  sugar.  The  vast 
area  of  rich,  deep,  loamy  and  easily-worked  soils,  which 
afford  the  plant  deep  rooting,  free  expansion  and  large 
yield  of  rich  beets;  the  equable  climate,  which  insures 
ample  sun-action,  freedom  from  low  temperature,  and  an 
almost  continuous  growing  season  through  the  year  for  a 
hardy  plant  like  the  beet,  and  thus  provides  for  sugar 
factories  a  maximum  working  season  without  protection 
of  the  rich,  raw  material  from  freezing — these  are  local 
advantages  for  beet  growing  and  sugar  making,  the  im- 
portance of  which  it  is  difficult  to  overestimate.  There 
are  also  many  incidental  advantages  and  benefits  in 
ground  which  does  not  freeze  and  in  factories  where  the 
absence  of  freezing  temperature  makes  it  unnecessary  to 
build  for  protection  of  men,  materials  and  machinery,  ex- 
cept from  heat  and  rain. 

Nine  California  beet  sugar  factories  produced,  in  1908, 
99,613  tons  of  sugar,  a  total  value,  at  S1/^.  per  pound,  of 
$7,460,975.  Two  others  were  constructed  in  1909,  and  the 
aggregate  producing  capacity  of  the  11  will  exceed  150,- 
000  tons.  Large  as  this  quantity  is,  it  is  small  compared 
with  the  possible  production  in  California,  as  it  is  esti- 
mated that  there  are  750,000  acres  well  adapted  to  the 
raising  of  sugar  beets.  Allowing  for  proper  rotation  of 
crops,  about  200,000  acres  would  be  available  each  year — 
capable  of  producing  2,500,000  tons  of  beets  and  350,000 
tons  of  sugar.  The  annual  consumption  of  sugar  in  the 
United  States  is  about  3,500,000  tons.  Comparative  sta- 
tistics show  that  the  proportion  of  saccharine  is  greater  in 
the  beets  grown  in  California  than  in  any  other  locality, 
whether  in  Europe  or  America.  The  plant  itself  becomes 
a  more  active  worker  and  extracts  more  sugar  from  Cali- 
fornia soil  and  sunshine  than  it  does  elsewhere. 


210  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES. 

California  is  second  to  Colorado  in  the  production  of 
beet  sugar,  but  the  largest  factory  in  the  United  States, 
and  one  of  the  largest  in  the  world,  is  the  one  at  Spreckels, 
CaL,  which  is  able  to  slice  3000  tons  of  beets  in  a  day,  or 
100  carloads  of  30  tons  each.  The  oldest  successful  factory 
in  the  United  States  is  at  Alvarado,  CaL,  which  was  estab- 
lished in  1879,  and  has  made  sugar  every  year  but  one 
since  its  beginning. 

Situations  and  Soils. — The  large  area  noted  as  adapted 
to  sugar  beet  production  is  obtained  by  computation  of 
our  valley  acreage.  For  the  most  economical  production 
of  uniformly  good  beets,  fairly  level  fields  are  of  great  ad- 
vantage. To  get  the  largest  profits  there  must  be  the  use 
of  the  most  capacious  planting,  cultivating  and  harvesting 
appliances,  and  all  these  are  best  suited  to  level  or  gently 
sloping  lands.  As  most  of  these  lands,  except  in  coast 
valleys,  lie  in  regions  of  moderate  rainfall  there  is  seldom 
the  need  of  underdrainage,  but  the  problem  is  rather  one 
of  moisture  conservation,  and  that  is  in  most  cases  easily 
accomplished  by  cultivation,  to  the  extent  required  by  the 
beet  which  roots  deeply  and  draws  its  moisture  from  a 
large  soil  volume.  Where  it  may  be  necessary  to  concen- 
trate the  rainfall  of  two  seasons  for  one  crop,  the  method 
of  a  constantly  stirred  summer  fallow,  which  insures  a 
crop  of  grain  in  spite  of  low  rainfall,  will  do  the  same  for 
a  crop  of  beets,  providing  the  relatively  deeper  cultiva- 
tion required  by  the  beet  is  given. 

Though  nearly  all  fertile  soils  will  grow  good  sugar 
beets  if  well  tilled  for  moisture  retention  and  for  root 
penetration  and  expansion,  a  rich,  sandy  loam,  deeply 
worked  and  with  medium  moisture  conditions,  is  the  ideal 
for  the  purpose.  Sandy  soils,  which  dry  out  in  spite  of 
cultivation,  are  available  for  beet  growing  by  careful  irri- 
gation. Heavy,  wet  soils  may  be  put  into  condition  by 
underdrainage  and  cultivation,  but  as  there  are  such  vast 
areas  of  soils  which  will  suit  the  beet  without  either  irri- 
gation or  drainage,  it  is  probable  that  improvements  in 
these  lines  will  be  left  for  the  future. 


212  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES. 

Tillage  for  Beets. — Land  for  beets  should  be  taken  in 
hand  early.  If  it  has  not  been  summer  fallowed  the  pre- 
vious summer,  it  may  receive  a  shallow  plowing  early  in 
the  fall,  being  left  rough  to  receive  the  rainfall.  As  soon 
as  the  heaviest  and  coldest  rains  of  the  season  are  over  in 
the  locality  a  deep  plowing  should  be  given,  so  as  to  secure 
a  seed  bed  of  ten  or  twelve  inches  depth  of  stirred  soil. 
This  practice  is  best  for  coast  valleys,  where  spring  rains 
after  the  plowing  are  likely  to  be  sufficient  to  restore  to 
the  soil  a  proper  degree  of  compactness.  In  light,  open 
soils,  with  scant  spring  rains,  the  first  plowing  should  be 
deep  and  the  second  shallow  for  fear  of  leaving  the  lower 
strata  too  open.  It  is  often  good  practice  to  rely  upon  one 
good  plowing  early  in  the  winter,  followed,  by  the  use  of 
the  chisel  cultivator,  harrow  and  clod-crusher,  to  bring 
the  surface  into  fine  mellow  condition  to  receive  the  seed. 
Modification  of  methods  must  be  made  according  to  local 
soil  and  rainfall,  but  the  condition  to  be  aimed  at  is  deep 
stirring,  lower  strata,  moist  but  not  wet,  surface  fine  and 
moisture  near  it,  but  not  disposed  to  bake  or  crust  with 
rains,  which  may  follow  sowing. 

Planting. — Sugar  beets  are  grown  in  drills  about  18  to 
20  inches  apart.  Seeding  is  done  with  machines.  Cover- 
ing should  be  as  shallow  as  will  bring  the  seed  into  soil, 
which  will  remain  moist ;  depth  depends  upon  earliness  of 
sowing,  character  of  soil,  as  already  explained  in  other 
connections.  Sometimes  it  is  desirable  to  cover  as  deeply 
as  two  inches;  sometimes,  and  usually,  perhaps,  one  inch 
or  a  little  less.  In  late  sowings,  when  the  surface  has  be- 
come quite  dry,  an  attachment  to  the  drill  which  pushes 
aside  part  of  the  dry  surface  and  brings  the  seed  into  moist 
soil  without  running  too  deep,  has  been  found  valuable. 
The  greatest  care  should  be  taken  to  have  the  rows 
straight.  Possibly  most  beets  are  grown  in  crooked  rows, 
as  it  has  long  been  said  of  corn,  but  the  whole  after  course 
of  the  field  is  improved  by  running  the  drill  straight.  It 
is  desirable  to  have  a  rain  just  after  planting,  unless  the 


GROWING  SUGAR  BEETS.  213 

land  is  very  light  and  dry.     If  crust  forms  it  must  be 
broken  by  light  harrowing  or  rolling. 

Cultivation. — Weeds  should  never  be  allowed  to  get  the 
start  of  the  young  beets ;  nor  should  the  soil  be  allowed  to 
lock  them  in  a  hard  surface.  For  this  reason  cultivation 
should  begin  as  soon  as  the  rows  can  be  seen.  Very 


SUGAR  BEETS  IRRIGATED  FOUR  TIMES  IN  FURROWS. 

effective  cultivators,  or  horse-hoes,  have  been  designed  by 
California  mechanics,  which  make  is  possible  to  work  two 
or  four  rows  at  once  if  the  beets  are  in  straight  equi-dis- 
tant  rows.  This  cultivation  beginning  thus  early,  must  be 
continued  at  frequent  intervals,  for  the  reasons  already 
fully  given  in  the  chapter  on  cultivation.  Cultivation  is 
absolutely  essential  to  a  good  beet ;  not  only  must  moisture 
be  conserved,  but  the  lower  strata  must  be  kept  reason- 


214  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES. 

ably  loose  so  that  the  soil  may  be  displaced  by  the  ex- 
panding beet-root.  This  is  done  not  by  deep  summer  cul- 
tivation, but  by  keeping  a  good  surface  mulch  to  prevent 
evaporation,  and  the  lower  soil  will  keep  itself  in  good 
condition.  All  flattened,  or  knotty,  or  gnarly  beets  show 
that  there  has  fieen  slackness,  either  in  proper  depth,  in 
preparation  of  the  ground,  or  in  lack  of  cultivation  after- 
ward, permitting  deep  drying  out.  Beets  which  show 
signs  of  distress  will  be  discarded  or  discounted  at  the 
factory.  The  beet  must  be  symmetrical,  smooth  and  fine — 
all  of  which  are  signs  of  thrift  in  a  beet  as  they  are  in  a 
well-bred  animal. 

Thinning. — Excellence  in  beets  is  also  dependent  upon 
each  having  adequate  soil-room  and  plant  food.  It  is  im- 
possible to  get  proper  spacing  by  any  scheme  of  seed  drop- 
ping. It  is  necessary  to  sow  too  thickly  in  order  to  get  a 
uniform  stand;  the  spacing  of  the  beets  must  be  done 
afterward.  By  using  a  narrow  hoe  crosswise  to  the  rows, 
the  plants  can  be  quickly  thinned  to  clumps  or  groups, 
from  which  all  but  the  strongest  plant  are  pulled  by  hand. 
Thinning  should  be  begun  when  the  seedlings  are  small — 
say  from  two  to  four  leaves.  It  is  easier  to  do  it  well  at 
this  stage,  and  it  is  vastly  better  for  the  beets  which  are 
to  stand,  for  it  does  not  displace  the  soil  nor  disturb  their 
rooting,  as  when  it  is  done  too  late.  Beets  should  stand 
eight  to  ten  inches  apart  in  the  row,  according  to  the 
soil.  Where  the  soil  is  very  rich  and  the  beets  likely  to 
overgrow  the  two-pound  average,  which  is  most  accept- 
able to  the  factory,  they  should  be  allowed  to  stand  nearer 
in  the  row.  After  thinning,  the  surface  cultivation  must 
proceed  for  weed  cutting  and  surface  loosening  until  the 
beet  leaves  cover  the  ground.  The  field  is  then  laid  by 
until  harvesting. 

Harvesting. — As  the  outer  leaves  of  the  beet  turn  yel- 
low and  drop  to  the  ground,  maturity  arrives.  It  is  usual 
for  the  factory  to  notify  the  grower  when  his  crop  is  ready. 
The  beet  can  stand  long  in  the  soil  without  losing  sugar 
percentage,  but  the  factory  cannot  use  all  the  beets  at  the 


THE  BEET  SEASON. 


215 


moment  of  their  readiness,  and  therefore  some  growers 
have  to  wait  for  delivery  until  the  opening  of  the  rainy 
season,  and  that  is  not  pleasant  or  profitable.  It  is  de- 
sirable, therefore,  that  seeding  should  be  done  at  different 
times,  as  each  kind  of  land  in  the  locality  comes  into  con- 
dition, and  thus  prolong  both  the  harvesting  season  and 
the  factory  season. 

Beet  harvesting  is  now  done  cheaply  by  means  of  imple- 
ments and  machines  of  California  design  and  construction, 


FURROW    IRRIGATION   OF    SUGAR   BEETS    IN    THE 
SAN  JOAQUIN  VALLEY. 

which  either  loosen  or  completely  dislodge  the  beet.  Top- 
ping, or  removing  the  leaves  and  all  the  green  part  of  the 
root  grown,  is  done  with  knives,  though  inventors  have 
made  some  promising  progress  in  machines  for  this  work. 
The  Beet  Season. — As  already  said,  the  beet  is  an  all 
the  year  plant  in  California.  Planting  may  be  done  when- 
ever the  local  soil  and  moisture  conditions  warrant.  Some 
planting  is  done  as  early  as  February  in  regions  of  light 
rains,  and  the  sugar  factory  season  opens  in  southern  Cali- 


216  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES. 

fornia  in  July.  In  regions  of  heavier  rains  planting  is 
done  in  April  and  May.  In  all  regions  there  is  consider- 
able length  to  the  sowing  season,  so  that  succession  in 
ripening  is  possible,  where  there  are  lands  of  different 
elevations  and  degree  of  moisture.  It  seems  possible  to 
keep  the  factories  in  operation  near  the  whole  year  with- 
out great  storage  of  beets,  but  this  has  not  been  'done 
so  far. 

Yield  and  Profit. — Taking  into  his  calculation  the  figures 
for  a  number  of  years,  Dr.  G.  W.  Shaw  of  the  University 
of  California  has  shown  that  "on  a  total  of  326,000  acres 
there  has  been  an  average  production  of  9.8  tons  of  beets 
per  acre  annually,  giving  an  average  return  of  over  $44 
per  acre,  or  a  net  profit  of  about  $14  per  acre  (after  charg- 
ing the  value  of  the  labor),  which  certainly  compares 
favorably  with  other  field  crops  grown  in  the  State.  A 
like  number  of  acres  devoted  to  wheat  and  most  other 
agricultural  crops  for  the  same  period  would  have  pro- 
duced a  decidedly  less  return  per  acre,  if  average  price 
and  yield  per  acre  be  taken  as  the  basis. 

The  figures  cannot  be  taken  as  the  entire  value,  for  there 
should  be  included  the  better  condition  in  which  the  land 
is  left  for  the  growth  of  other  crops,  provided  the  beet 
crop  is  properly  handled  by  returning  the  tops  to  the  field 
either  by  plowing  under  or  feeding  them  and  returning 
the  manure  to  the  field.  This,  of  course,  is  difficult  to  ex- 
press in  money  value. 

"To  maintain  California's  high  producing  power  atten- 
tion must  be  given  to  the  matter  of  irrigation ;  it  is  the 
only  way  in  which  the  fickleness  of  climate  can  be  over- 
come. Given  climate,  and  the  farmer  is  largely  inde- 
pendent of  the  soil  question  when  rational  methods  of  cul- 
ture are  observed.  When  the  season's  returns  per  acre  to 
the  farmer  are  considered,  Utah,  with  $51.55,  is  the  only 
State  which  exceeds  California  with  $49.94,  but  it  has 
probably  cost  Utah  growers  that  much  more  to  irrigate 
their  land;  this  extra  cost,  however,  being  well  spent  in 
order  to  make  sure  of  a  crop,  a  condition  which  is  de- 


CALIFORNIA  STOCK  BEETS.  217 

voutly  to  be  wished  for  in  California.  Given  a  favorable 
season,  and  there  is  probably  not  a  State  that  can  surpass 
California  (even  if  any  can  equal  her)  in  the  number  of 
tons  of  high-grade  beets  that  can  be  produced  per  acre." 

Beet  Pulp  for  Stock  Feed. — The  use  of  beet  pulp  for 
stock  feeding  has  increased  rapidly  during  the  last  few 
years,  and  promises  soon  to  be  as  popular  here  as  in  Eu- 
rope. It  is  fed  fresh  and  put  down  in  silos.  It  is  very 
cheaply  siloed,  because  it  packs  down  readily  and  it  seals 
itself  from  contact  with  the  air  by  the  formation  of  a  sur- 
face crust.  Special  information  on  the  use  in  California 
of  beet  wastes  for  stock  is  found  in  recent  publications.* 

Varieties. — Thus  far  California  has  relied  upon  Euro- 
pean beet  seed.  We  have  not  yet  brought  into  practice 
here  the  exact  methods  of  testing  and  selecting  the 
"mother  beets"  for  seed  production  which  are  practiced 
in  Germany  and  France.  By  this  means  the  sugar-contents 
have  been  increased  and  shape,  thrift  and  other  characters 
of  the  beet  have  been  advanced.  It  is  possible  that  Cali- 
fornia will  in  due  time  develop  local  seed  supplies  of  the 
highest  quality,  but  no  notable  progress  has  yet  been  made 
in  that  line.  Of  the  varieties  chiefly  used  at  the  present 
time  by  the  California  sugar  factories  the  best  information 
can  be  had  from  the  managers,  who  furnish  to  growers 
the  seed  which  in  their  experience  yields  the  best  results, 
and  their  contracts  are  conditioned  upon  the  use  of  the 
seed  they  furnish, 

BEETS  AS  FOOD  FOR  STOCK. 

All  that  has  been  said  about  the  fitness  of  California 
soils  and  climates  to  the  growth  of  the  sugar  beet  is  also 
applicable  to  the  growth  of  beets  for  stock  food.  Early 
plantings  of  beets  furnish  succulent  food  when  the  pastures 
yield  but  "dry  feed,"  which  is  the  local  name  for  grasses 
and  clovers  which  make  rich  hay  as  they  stand  in  the  field. 

*Pacific  Rural  Press,  Aug.  21,  and  Sept.  11,  1909:  Report  No. 
90,  "Progress  of  the  Beet  Sugar  Industry  in  the  United  States," 
by  C.  F.  Saylor,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.,  Washington,  D.  C.,  1909. 


218  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES. 

Though  this  food  is  very  nutritious,  it  is  better  fitted  for 
fattening  purposes  than  for  maintaining  the  milk-flow,  and 
for  this  reason  it  should  be  supplemented  by  succulent 
food.  By  later  planting  of  beets  good  supplies  can  be  pro- 
vided for  the  deficiency  of  pasture  growth  early  in  the 
winter,  which  occurs  when  the  winter  happens  to  be  colder 
or  drier  than  usual.  Thus,  by  planting  from  February 
until  June,  or  even  later  on  moist  bottom  or  irrigated  land, 
the  stock  feeder  can  have  beets  for  his  animals  the  year 
round. 

Preparation  of  the  land  is  the  same  for  stock  beets  as  for 
sugar  beets.  The  plants  must  have  wider  spacing,  both 
for  the  rows  and  for  individual  plants,  according  to  the 
size  of  the  variety  grown.  The  long  red  mangel-wurzel, 
which  frequently  reaches  a  weight  of  seventy  pounds,  and 
should  average  half  that  or  more,  needs  room.  Three  feet 
between  the  rows  and  two  feet  between  the  plants  in  the 
row  is  as  little  space  as  should  be  given. 

Growers  of  stock  beets  often  sprout  the  seed  before 
planting,  and  sow  by  hand,  from  five  to  eight  pounds  per 
acre,  in  a  shallow  furrow,  following  a  line  set  by  a 
" marker,"  and  cover  with  a  cultivator  or  harrow,  finally 
smoothing  with  a  plank  clod-crusher  or  "rubber."  , 

Summer  cultivation  determines  the  character  of  the  crop 
as  it  does  with  sugar  beets,  and  the  best  cultivators  secure 
almost  incredible  weights  of  beets  from  rich,  moist  soils. 
The  crop  often  reaches  twice  that  of  sugar  beets,  and 
thorgh  the  stock  beets  are  inferior  in  nutritive  contents, 
the  greater  crop  and  the  greater  ease  with  which  large 
beets,  growing  a  good  part  of  their  bulk  above  ground, 
are  gathered  and  handled  are  held  to  compensate  for  their 
less  nutritive  substance. 

Varieties. — Of  the  many  cattle  beets  of  Europe  three 
have  gained  wide  popularity  in  California :  the  Long  Red 
Mangel,  the  Yellow  Globe  Mangel,  and  the  Golden 
Tankard.  , 

Long  Red  Mangel. — This  variety  is  the  largest  and  pro- 
duces the  heaviest  crops,  and  is  the  best  generally  pre- 


220  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES. 

ferred  by  dairymen  and  for  hog  feed,  but  it  requires  deep, 
strong  soil  to  do  well.  A  rich,  sandy  loam,  a  heavy  black 
adobe  or  a  yellow  clay,  will  produce  great  crops  of  Long 
Red  Mangels. 

Yellow  Globe  Mangel. — This  is  medium  in  size,  rutabaga 
shaped,  more  solid  and  less  watery,  and  is  the  best  beet 
for  a  light,  shallow  soil.  All  root  crops,  as  stated  already, 
require  a  deep,  moist  soil,  and  the  richer  the  better.  But 
Yellow  Globe  Mangels  are  recommended  on  a  light  or 
gravelly  soil,  but  in  such  case  a  liberal  use  should  be  made 
of  old  and  well-rotted  barnyard  manure,  well  worked  into 
the  soil.  . 

Yellow  Tankard  Mangel. — This  is  also  called  "Golden 
Tankard. "  It  is  one  of  the  most  famous  English  varieties. 
It  is  very  neat  and  symmetrical  in  form — cylindrical,  nar- 
rowing abruptly  at  both  ends.  It  has  yellowish  flesh 
throughout.  It  reaches  large  size,  but  can  be  grown  more 
thickly  than  the  Long  Red. 

These  yellow  Mangels  have  gained  rapidly  in  popularity 
during  the  last  few  years ;  first  in  southern  California,  and 
now  in  the  north  as  well.  They  are  better  suited  to  cal- 
careous soils,  which  are  very  prevalent  in  California,  and 
they  endure  drouth  better  than  the  Long  Red. 


CHAPTER  XVI. 
THE  CABBAGE  FAMILY. 

Common  Cabbage. — Brassica  oleracea  capitata. 

French,  chou  cabus,  chou  pomme;  German,  kopf  kohl, 
kraut ;  Dutch,  slutkool ;  Danish,  hoved  kaal ;  Italian,  cavolo 
cappuccio;  Spanish,  col  repollo;  Portuguese,  couve  re- 
polho. 

Savoy  Cabbage. — Brassica  oleracea  lullata. 

French,  chou  de  Milan;  German,  Savoyerkohl;  Dutch, 
savooikool;  Italian,  cavolo  de  Milano;  Spanish,  col  de 
Milan ;  Portuguese,  saboia. 

Brussels  Sprouts. — Idem. 

French,  chou  de  Bruxelles ;  German,  Brusseler  sprossen- 
wirsing;  Dutch,  spruitkool;  Danish,  rosenkaal;  Italian, 
cavolo  a  germoglio. 

Cauliflower. — Brassica  oleracea  lotrytis. 

French,  chou-fleur ;  German,  blumenkohl ;  Dutch,  bloem- 
kool ;  Italian,  cavol-flore ;  Spanish,  coliflor ;  Portuguese, 
couve-flor. 

Broccoli. — Idem. 

French,  choux  brocolis,  chou-fleur  d'hiver;  German, 
spargelkohl;  Danish,  asparges  kaal;  Italian,  cavol  broc- 
colo ;  Spanish,  broculi. 

Borecole  or  Kale. — Brassica  oleracea  acephala. 

French,  chox  verts ;  German,  winterkohl ;  Dutch,  boeren- 
kool ;  Italian,  cavolo  verde ;  Spanish,  coles  sin  cogollo. 

Collar  ds. — Idem. 

Jersey  Kale,  Thousand  Headed  Cabbage  or  Oregon  Kale. 

Other  species  of  brassica,  grown  for  fleshy  stems  or  roots, 
rather  than  for  esculent  foliage,  will  be  classed  as  "tur- 
nips" in  a  subsequent  chapter. 

California  has  vast   capacity   as  a  supply  region  for 


222  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES. 

esculents  of  the  cabbage  family.  The  climate  favors  pro- 
duction and  shipment  at  a  time  when  the  Eastern  markets 
have  only  stored  cabbage,  and  California  cauliflower  is 
harvested  in  splendid  size  and  quality  all  through  the  win- 
ter months,  so  that  the  crop  is  disposed  of  before  the  East- 
ern grower  can  trust  his  small  plants  to  the  open  air. 
Some  years  when  there  have  been  low  freight  rates  or  a 
partial  failure  in  Eastern  production,  there  have  been  very 
large  shipments  in  direct  competition  with  the  Eastern 
grown  cabbage  in  the  early  autumn,  and  money  has  been 
made  in  selling  California  cabbage,  not  as  an  early  vege- 
table, but  at  prices  which  sauerkraut  factories  were  willing 
to  pay.  The  Eastern  production  has,  however,  been  more 
intelligently  carried  on  during  recent  years,  and  California 
producers  have  less  opportunity  in  the  farther  East.  In 
the  great  central  region  of  the  country,  however,  Cali- 
fornia vegetable  shippers  find  a  large  market,  and  growing 
is  done  on  a  considerable  scale,  but  the  aggregate  is  only 
a  small  fraction  of  what  the  State  could  easily  produce. 

The  largest  cabbage  producing  regions  are  the  sandy 
loam  uplands  bordering  San  Francisco  on  the  south,  the 
lowlands  of  Santa  Clara  county,  the  reclaimed  islands  of 
the  Sacramento  and  San  Joaquin  rivers,  and  the  valleys 
of  southern  California,  both  on  the  coast  and  in  the  in- 
terior. The  last  named  are  the  largest  producing  districts 
for  overland  shipment,  although  the  central  parts  of  the 
State  often  export  largely.  About  a  thousand  carloads 
went  out  of  the  State  during  the  winter  of  1908. 

Cabbage  is  produced  both  in  large  areas  wholly  given  to 
the  plant  and  by  planting  between  young  fruit  trees,  both 
in  rainfall  and  irrigated  districts.  As  the  cabbage  is  very 
largely  a  winter  crop  in  California,  the  water  which  it  re- 
quires comes  free  from  the  clouds  or  at  low  rates  from  the 
irrigating  ditches.  The  cliief  objection  to  the  crop  is  the 
great  fluctuation  in  value  from  year  to  year.  It  is  hardly 
worth  while  at  $15  per  ton,  and  very  profitable  at  $30  to 
$40  per  ton,  and  the  planting  is  large  or  small,  according 
to  the  preceding  year's  experience  in  selling,  and  this,  of 


CALIFORNIA  CABBAGE  GROWING.  223 

course,  largely  influences  the  price  of  the  new  crop.  An 
average  crop  of  cabbage  would  be,  perhaps,  four  tons  to 
the  acre  and  the  average  value  $20  per  ton  or  $80  gross 
value  per  acre.  The  cost  at  current  rates  for  labor  would 
be  about  $30  per  acre. 

The  cabbage  crop  is  grown  for  winter  and  spring  gather- 
ing. Interior  southern  situations  produce  heads  ready  for 
shipping  as  early  as  February,  and  the  shipment  continues, 
including  the  later  coast  regions  in  southern  and  central 
California,  until  April  or  later.  Thus  California  is  able 
to  reach  the  markets  at  the  East  when  the  storage  houses 
of  Eastern  regions  are  emptied  of  cabbage  and  the  sauer- 
kraut barrels  run  low  and  to  receive  whatever  high  prices 
may  be  available  at  that  time  of  the  year. 

Although  the  State  is  so  well  suited  to  produce  all  the 
plants  of  the  cabbage  family,  the  common  cabbage  is  the 
only  one  which  is  widely  grown  by  small  growers  for  home 
supplies.  It  is  the  hardiest  of  the  group  under  neglect  or 
drouth,  it  is  true,  but  there  is  not  so  much  difference  as 
some  imagine.  The  cauliflower  has,  for  instance,  the  repu- 
tation of  being  hard  to  grow,  but  there  is  really  no  diffi- 
culty about  it  if  proper  effort  is  made,  as  will  be  described 
later. 

THE  CABBAGE. 

The  cabbage  can  be  grown  everywhere  in  Caifornia  by 
selecting  that  season  of  the  year  which  furnishes  the  ade- 
quate moisture  and  moderate  temperature  which  best  suits 
its  nature.  These  requirements  adapt  it  well  to  winter 
growth  generally  in  California,  except  in  the  frostier 
places,  and  give  the  plant  a  longer  season  and  a  greater  at- 
tainment in  weight  in  regions  of  rich  soils  open  to  coast 
influences.  It  does  not  resent  fogs  and  cold  winds,  and 
thrives  directly  upon  the  coast  as  well  as  in  coast  valleys. 
In  the  interior  it  reaches  its  best  estate  on  bottom  lands, 
but  will  succeed  on  plains  and  uplands  with  enough  mois- 
ture by  irrigation  to  supplement  the  rainfall,  but  without 
irrigation  it  may  be  often  disappointing  even  though  it  be 
started  early  enough. 


224  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES. 

Soil. — The  cabbage  does  well  on  heavy  soil,  and  it  does 
not  object  to  alkali — if  it  is  not  too  strong.  It  delights  in 
copious  treatment  with  stable  manures.  For  quick  fall 
growth,  for  early  winter  maturity,  such  soil,  if  moist 
enough  by  rainfall  or  irrigation,  will  bring  it  along  rapidly 
while  the  autumn  heat  is  ample.  For  later  fall  planting  to 
reach  early  spring  maturity,  a  warmer,  lighter,  well-drain- 
ed soil  or  a  raised  bed  will  push  full  growth  in  a  month  or 
six  weeks  less  time  than  heavy  soil  in  a  rainy  region,  which 
is  likely  to  be  cold  and  water-soaked.  But  the  cabbage 
sometimes  repays  great  kindness  by  growth  to  bursting  or 
cracking  of  the  head.  Care  should  be  had  against  over- 
growth for  this  reason.  Cracking  can  be  prevented  by  giv- 
ing heads  which  threaten  it  a  pull,  or  a  cut  through  the 
roots  with  a  spade,  so  as  to  lessen  its  riotous  living  by 
partial  arrest  of  its  supplies. 

The  Time  to  Plant. — These  points  on  soil  condition  also 
suggest  different  times  of  planting  in  different  localities, 
according  to  what  may  be  reasonably  anticipated  in  the 
way  of  heat  and  moisture.  Even  in  the  same  locality  there 
will  also  be  different  dates  of  suitability,  according  to  the 
character  of  the  current  season.  The  best  practice  is  to 
have  plants  available  in  different  seed  beds  and  to  plant 
out  in  succession  the  thriftiest  plants  at  hand  at  such  times 
as  the  season  may  show  fitness.  Planting  by  the  calendar 
is  not  usually  intelligent  practice  in  California,  as  has  been 
already  stated. 

Growing  Plants. — It  is  wise  in  most  parts  of  California 
to  start  plants  in  a  seed  bed  in  August  or  September,  irri- 
gating the  ground  well  to  guard  against  drying  out  on 
land  not  naturally  moist.  In  the  warmer  coast  regions 
good  plants  can  be  grown  at  this  time  of  the  year  in  the 
open  ground  in  drills  eight  or  ten  inches  apart  for  hand- 
hoeing.  In  the  interior,  where  temperature  extremes  are 
liable  to  be  greater,  a  cold-frame,  or  covered  seed  bed, 
may  be  used  to  protect  the  young  plants  against  hot,  dry 
winds.  In  small  garden  practice  the  use  of  the  seed  box 
is  often  handier.  Plants  should  be  given  space  enough  to 


GROWING  CABBAGE  PLANTS.  225 

/ 

grow  thriftily  and  should  be  transplanted  to  the  field  when 
conditions  are  right  for  planting  out  in  the  locality. 

Plants  started  in  September  may  be  planted  in  the  field 
as  soon  as  they  are  strong  enough,  when  an  early  winter 
crop  is  expected.  Where  this  is  not  favored  by  the  local 
climate,  it  is  still  advisable  to  have  early  grown  plants,  and 
in  garden  practice  they  can  be  several  times  transplanted 
and  thus  kept  small  and  stocky  for  planting  out  when  soil 
and  weather  are  right  for  it.  Where  the  early  winter  is 
apt  to  have  quite  severe  frosts,  plants  started  in  the  fall 
in  the  open  air  can  be  transplanted  to  cold  frames  until 
this  danger  is  past. 

For  late  winter  and  spring  planting,  plants  may  be 
started  later,  say  in  January,  but  then  in  some  places  the 
hot-bed,  or  other  form  of  gentle  bottom  heat  described  in 
the  chapter  on  propagation,  is  desirable.  Care  must,  how- 
ever, always  be  taken  not  to  use  too  high  heat  with  cab- 
bage plants,  and  for  usual  California  conditions  a  seed- 
bed, with  the  soil  made  light  enough  for  good  drainage, 
and  with  protection  from  cold  winds  as  afforded  by  a 
fence  or  buildings,  is  usually  coddling  enough  for  cab- 
bages. If,  however,  the  plants  are  grown  with  heat  they 
should  be  first  transplanted  to  a  cold  frame,  or  a  protected 
bed,  for  hardening  before  they  are  taken  to  open  ground. 

Preparation  of  Cabbage  Ground. — Aside  from  generous 
manuring,  for  it  is  hard  to  make  ground  too  rich  for  the 
cabbage,  a  good,  deep  working  of  the  soil  will  show  itself 
in  the  crop.  For  fall  planting  it  is  not  desirable  to  give 
the  surface  as  fine  a  polish  as  is  necessary  for  seed  sowing, 
because  it  will  be  all  the  more  liable  to  puddle  and  crust 
with  the  rains.  If  the  plant  is  well  firmed  in  fine  soil,  it 
will  take  hold  well  and  the  interspaces  will  be  more  recep- 
tive if  left  a  little  open.  Subsequent  cultivation  will  fine 
it  sufficiently. 

Planting  Out. — Cabbages  are  usually  grown  in  the  field 
in  rows  two  and  a  half  to  three  feet  apart,  laid  out  with  a 
marker,  the  plants  being  distanced  about  15  inches  in  the 
rows.  Planting  is  done  with  a  dibble,  and  a  man  can  plant 


226  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES. 

out  four  to  eight  thousand  a  day,  according  to  his  expert- 
ness-,  if  he  has  a  boy  to  drop  plants  for  him.  The  earth 
should  be  pressed  firmly  about  the  roots  with  the  dibble. 
Planting  with  a  trowel  can  be  very  rapidly  done  in  this 
way.  Get  a  new  mason 's  trowel  about  six  inches  wide  and 
12  inches  long  coming  to  a  point.  Cut  off  one  or  two  in- 
ches of  the  point  making  it  round  on  the  grindstone.  Put 
the  trowel  down  in  the  soil  the  whole  length,  pull  it  over 
toward  you,  put  in  the  plant,  take  out  the  trowel,  then 
•step  on  the  soil  near  the  plant  to  make  it  firm. 

If  the  seed-bed  is  sandy  enough  and  is  allowed  to  become 
a  little  dry,  the  plants  can  be  lifted  readily  without  losing 
roots.  Large  bunches  of  plants  when  taken  to  the  field 
should  be  protected  from  sun  and  wind  by  a  wet  sack,  and 
dropping  should  not  go  far  ahead  of  the  planting.  If  the 
weather  is  rather  dry  the  plant  is  helped  to  get  a  start  in 
a  new  place  by  removing  the  lower,  larger,  leaves  when 
transplanting  to  the  field. 

Early  planting  in  anticipation  of  rains  may  be  surer  to 
hold  on  if  a  little  water  is  used  in  planting  if  the  ground 
is  inclined  to  be  dry.  On  irrigated  ground,  which  is  given 
a  good  soaking  before  plowing  for  fall  planting,  this  may 
not  be  necessary,  but  subsequent  irrigation  must  be  given 
in  time  if  rains  are  delayed,  for  the  plants  must  not  be 
allowed  to  stop  growing. 

Cultivation. — Cabbages  must  be  kept  well  cultivated  to 
reach  their  best  estate.  Early  cabbages  will  head  in  two 
and  a  half  to  four  months,  according  to  weather  and  soil 
conditions,  and  size  will  depend  much  upon  cultivation  in 
connection  with  soil  richness  and  adequate  moisture. 
Hardly  any  plant  delights  more  in  soil  stirring.  Rapid 
growth  during  the  winter  also  gives  the  plant  the  advant- 
age over  the  lice  or  aphis,  which  sap  the  life  of  unthrifty 
plants,  and  is  worse  on  late-planted  cabbages  because  of 
the  dry,  hot  weather  they  are  likely  to  encounter. 

Harvesting. — The  cabbage  field  is  usually  cut  over  for  a 
winter  shipment  three  times  in  about  six  weeks,  and  if 
used  for  a  winter  crop  the  ground  can  be  cleared  up  and 


VARIETIES  OF  CABBAGE.  227 

put  in  shape  for  a  summer  crop  of  corn,  tomatoes, 
melons  or  other  frost-fearing  vegetables,  or  of  beets  or 
other  roots  which  do  not  rebel  at  rather  a  late  start. 

Cabbage  for  Stock  Feed.— In  field  growth  of  cabbage  all 
imperfect  heads'  are  used  for  cow  feed  and  if  fed  right 
after  milking  and  not  in  too  large  quantities,  are  said  not 
to  taint  the  milk.  They  should  be  fed  in  connection  with 
some  dry  feed.  Very  often  cabbage  can  be  grown  to  ad- 
vantage especially  for  cow  feed.  Planted  out  in  February 
or  March  they  would  be  fit  for  use  by  the  latter  part  of 
June,  just  about  the  time  that  the  grass  gets  dry  and  cows 
want  something  juicy  to  keep  up  the  flow  of  milk.  In  their 
use,  however,  care  must  be  taken  to  strip  them  of  any  de- 
caying leaves,  as  nothing  will  impart  a  bad  taste  to  milk 
and  butter  quicker  than  the  use  of  decaying  vegetable 
matter  of  any  kind.  On  moist  land  late  cabbages  are  con- 
siderably grown  for  poultry  and  can  be  pulled  for  them 
all  through  the  dry  season. 

Varieties  of  the  Cabbage. — Of  the  many  varieties  of  cab- 
bage only  a  few  are  largely  grown  in  California. 

Early  Jersey  Wakefield  is  the  earliest  cabbage  and  is 
widely  popular.  It  makes  up  in  earliness  for  any  lack  in 
size.  Heads  pyramidal  in  shape  having  a  blunted  or 
rounded  peak. 

Early  Spring :  this  is  the  local  name  of  a  variety  grown 
by  market  gardeners  around  San  Francisco  instead  of  Early 
Jersey  Wakefield,  as  it  makes  a  little  larger  head  which  is 
flat. 

Early  Winningstadt :  follows  Jersey  Wakefield  in  ma- 
turity; upright,  pointed  shape;  short,  thick  leaf;  head 
compact,  firm,  and  heavy.  Very  popular  in  southern  Cali- 
fornia for  Eastern  shipment  heading  uniformly  in  the  hot- 
test weather. 

All-Head  Early :  the  earliest  of  the  large,  flat  varieties 
and  the  largest,  uniform  growth  and  good  for  a  long 
season. 

Mammoth  Drumhead :  head  thick  and  broad,  quite  flat 
on  top ;  a  standard  late  variety  reaching  the  largest  size. 


228  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES. 

Flat  Dutch :  very  widely  grown  as  a  late  cabbage ;  head 
large,  round,  and  solid,  flat  on  top ;  very  sure  header  and 
good  keeper. 

Holland  or  Danish  Ball-Head :  very  late,  not  large  but 
very  firm  and  round  head,  stands  in  the  field  a  long  time ; 
popular  for  Eastern  shipment  and  for  winter  keeping. 

Surehead :  large,  round,  flattened  heads  of  good  texture ; 
good  for  shipping;  a  long  keeper,  good  for  a  standard 
crop. 

THE  SAVOY  CABBAGE. 

The  distinguished  characteristic  of  the  Savoy  varieties 
is  their  crimped  leaves.  They  are  held  to  be  somewhat 
milder  in  flavor  than  the  common  cabbage.  Their  culture 
is  precisely  the  same  as  of  the  common  cabbage.  They  are 
very  little  grown  in  California,  but  are  desirable  in  giving 
variety  to  the  home  garden  supply.  The  Drumhead  Savoy 
is  a  good  variety. 

BRUSSELS  SPROUTS. 

Brussels  sprouts  require  considerably  longer  to  reach 
maturity  than  the  cabbage,  as  the  little  rosettes  have  to 
develop  at  the  bases  of  the  leaves  after  the  latter  are 
grown.  The  sprouts  appear  first  at  the  lower  part  of  the 
stem  and  appear  later  above,  thus  giving  many  cuttings 
from  the  same  stems.  The  crown  of  leaves  at  the  top 
should  not  be  removed  until  the  stem  has  done  its  work. 
In  California  the  sprouts  are  taken  from  the  stems  in  the 
places  where  they  grow,  as  our  winter  does  not  require 
taking  up  the  plants  and  storing  them  under  protection 
for  the  winter  "sprouting. "  This,  of  course,  is  a  great  ad- 
vantage. 

The  plants  are  quite  hardy,  and  in  most  parts  of  Cali- 
fornia bring  their  crop  in  the  winter  from  plants  set  out 
in  succession  during  the  previous  spring  and  summer. 
They  do  best  in  the  cool,  summer  climate  of  the  coast. 
Wherever  grown  they  must  have  abundant  moisture  all 
summer.  The  culture  is  the  same  as  for  cabbage,  except 


CAULIFLOWER  IN  CALIFORNIA.  229 

as  to  their  longer  season  of  growth,  which  has  been  noted. 
The  "Improved  Half  Dwarf"  is  the  variety  mostly  grown. 

CAULIFLOWER. 

The  cauliflower  is  one  of  the  grandest  vegetables  in  Cali- 
fornia. It  attains  large  size  and  superb  quality,  but  it  is 
not  universally  grown,  as  is  the  cabbage,  because  it  is 
rather  more  tender  and  exacting  and  more  rebellious  under 
neglect  or  deprivation.  While  it  is  perfectly  simple  and 
easy  for  a  person  with  any  joy  and  zeal  in  gardening  to 
grow  a  grand  cauliflower,  the  lack  of  these  qualities  will 
yield  distressing  failures.  He  may  busy  himself  with  a  fair 
sort  of  cabbages,  but  his  cauliflowers  will  point  with  gaunt 
fingers  at  him  instead  of  nestling  down  in  tight  masses  of 
snowy  curds,  as  if  to  shame  him  for  his  ill-treatment  of 
them.  For  this  reason  cabbages  are  seen  everywhere  and 
cauliflowers  seldom,  except  in  the  market  gardens  or  in 
the  fields  where  grown  for  distant  shipment,  which  is  about 
half  as  large  of  cauliflowers  as  of  cabbages. 

The  growth  of  the  cauliflower  is  in  the  main  the  same 
as  the  cabbage,  except  that  a  little  higher  heat  and  greater 
protection  are  needed  for  the  young  plants  and  a  little 
more  diligent  cultivation  and  faithful  attention  to  mosture 
supply  for  the  later  growth.  The  writer's  observation  is 
that  most  cases  of  failure  with  cauliflower  are  attributable 
to  delay  in  starting  the  plants  and  planting  out  too  late, 
and  to  insufficient  or  intermitten  moisture  supply.  Sum- 
mer heading  of  cauliflower  is  difficult  unless  the  plants  are 
started  in  the  seed  beds  in  the  winter  and  planted  out 
early  in  the  spring — for  a.  spring  start  from  the  seed  is 
apt  to  amount  to  little.  Winter  heading  is  surer  if  the 
plants  are  in  the  seed  beds  by  June  and  in  the  ground, 
properly  irrigated  and  worked,  in  August.  Besides  the 
error  of  starting  at  wrong  times  many  plantings  go  wrong 
toward  the  end  of  their  course,  through  lack  of  work  and 
water  on  the  home  stretch.  In  the  milder  regions  it  is 
possible  to  start  so  early  that  less  attention,  perhaps,  has 
to  be  given  to  -watering,  but  where  the  local  climate  re- 


230  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES. 

quires  spring  planting  the  reason  for  failure  is  generally 
to  be  seen  in  the  hard,  dry  ground  on  which  the  plants 
strive  in  vain  to  answer  the  grower 's  expectations. 

Soil. — Like  the  cabbage,  the  cauliflower  likes  good,  rich 
soil  and  plenty  of  water;  coarse,  long  manure  answers  the 
purpose  of  a  fertilizer  very  well  if  the  soil  is  heavy;  if 
applied  on  the  surface,  either  on  light  or  heavy  soil,  it 
keeps  the  ground  loose  and  the  water  soaks  through,  and 
thus  the  soil  is  always  moist. 

Situation. — The  cauliflower  is  less  hardy  than  the  cab- 
bage, and  where  there  is  a  choice  of  situations  in  the  gar- 
den, it  should  be  given,  for  winter  growing,  the  one  which 
is  warmer  and  more  protected.  It  also  resents  heat  which 
a  cabbage  will  endure,  and  for  summer  growing  will  be 
benefited  by  partial  shade. 

Growing  Plants. — There  is  a  wide  difference  in  practice 
in  different  regions.  On  irrigated  ground  in  the  foothills 
seed  is  sown  in  the  open  ground  in  June  or  July,  by  making 
the  soil  as  fine  as  possible ;  sow  the  seeds  and  cover  with 
a  slight  coat  of  well-rotted  manure ;  keep  well  wet  down. 
This  prevents  drying  out  and  hardening  of  the  ground  and 
the  plants  come  along  finely.  Similar  practice  is  followed 
in  regions  of  little  frost  in  other  parts  of  the  State  at  dif- 
ferent times  from  July  to  September,  for  winter  cutting. 
As  Eastern  shipments  of  cauliflower  continue  from  De- 
cember through  the  winter,  early  growth  of  plants  is 
necessary,  and  the  fall  weather  is  so  warm  that  the  seed- 
bed only  needs  a  little  sunshading  and  ample  moisture. 

In  colder  parts  of  the.  State,  as  for  example  in  small  val- 
leys liable  to  sharp  frosts,  some  seasons  favor  fall-grown 
plants,  others  do  not,  and  though  it  is  always  advisable 
to  have  them  for  small  plantings  by  those  who  delight  in 
taking  the  chances  on  early  things,  January  or  February 
planting  in  a  hot-bed  for  spring  and  summer  growth  must 
be  the  main  practice.  Hot-bed  plants  should  be  grown  at 
rather  a  low  temperature  and  transplanted  to  a  cold-frame 
or  other  place  under  some  cover  to  harden  before  plant- 
ing out.  Young  plants  must  not  be  so  wet  as  to  "damp 


GARDEN  GROWNTH  OF  CAULIFLOWER.  231 

off,"  and  they  should  not  be  huddled  together  as  closely 
as  cabbages  may  be. 

After-treatment. — Field  growth  of  cauliflower  is  like 
that  of  cabbage,  though  for  winter  growth  one  must  be 
sure  of  a  little  milder  exposure.  Planting  out  during  the 
winter  must  be  done  with  due  regard  to  the  fact  that  the 
cauliflower  is  a  more  tender  plant,  and  extra  care  must  be 
had  to  plant  when  the  soil  is  in  proper  condition  of  warmth 
and  moisture.  Fall  planting  requires  due  moisture  and  the 
assurance  of  it  to  push  the  plant  along  rapidly. 

Garden  Practice. — Amateurs  who  have  become  discour- 
aged over  growing  cauliflower  are  advised  to  try  the 
method  of  Mr.  Ira  W.  Adams,  of  Potter  valley,  being  sure 
they  are  'faithful  in  all  points  before  they  conclude  that 
this  vegetable  must  be  bought,  not  grown.  Mr.  Adams' 
experience  was  in  a  small  valley  where  frosts  are  rather 
sharp  and  where  fall  planting  is  seldom  satisfactory. 

About  the  middle  of  February  throw  into  a  snug  heap 
a  lot  of  fresh  horse  manure  mixed  with  short  straw  and 
leaves.  After  standing  a  few  days  to  heat,  throw  it  over 
and  let  it  remain  a  day  or  two ;  then  make  it  into  a  com- 
pact heap  (on  the  south  side  of  the  barn),  some  three  or 
four  feet  in  depth  and  about  twice  the  surface  required 
for  the  seed  bed.  Tread  it  dow  well.  On  this,  place  three 
or  four  inches  of  good  soil  made  light  and  rich  with  fine, 
well-rotted  manure ;  some  leaf  mold,  sand,  and  a  very  little 
ashes  is  a  very  valuable  addition.  Do  not  sift  the  dirt  nor 
have  it  too  fine.  This  seed  bed  must  be  protected  from 
frost  and  cold  rain,  as  well  as  cold  days  and  nights,  by  a 
cover  of  glass  or  muslin ;  muslin  answers  every  purpose, 
is  cheaper,  easier  handled,  and  does  not  draw  the  plants 
up  weak  and  spindling,  as  glass  often  does. 

From  time  to  time,  if  the  weather  continues  cold,  throw 
around  the  seed  bed  fresh  horse  manure  sometimes  to  the 
depth  of  four  feet  or  more,  leaving  only  the  front  side  ex- 
posed to  the  sun.  The  heat  generated  and  escaping  from 
this  manure  serves  to  keep  the  temperature  around  the  bed 
several  degrees  higher  than  it  would  have  otherwise  been. 


232  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES. 

When  the  plants  are  two  or  three  inches  high,  transplant 
to  another  rich  bed  without  any  bottom  heat,  set  the 
plants  three  inches  apart  and  keep  covered  as  little  as 
possible  in  order  to  harden  them.  Be  sure  to  keep  both 
seed  beds  always  well  moistened  (not  wet),  with  luke- 
warm water.  A  little  weak  manure  water  occasionally  is 
very  beneficial. 

When  the  plants  are  six  or  seven  inches  high,  transplant 
to  open  ground,  on  a  cloudy  day  if  possible,  or  just  at 
night,  giving  each  plant  a  cup  of  water.  The  ground 
should  be  prepared  in  the  best  possible  manner  and  made 
very  rich  with  manure  thoroughly  decomposed.  Horse, 
cow,  hog,  and  chicken  manure  mixed  is  good  as  any.  Put 
the  plants  three  feet  (or  nearly  so)  apart,  to  give  plenty 
of  room  for  cultivation,  which  should  be  done  once  a  week 
at  least,  twice  is  better,  and  hoe  them  often — the  more  the 
better,  especially  early  in  the  morning  when  the  ground 
is  wet  with  dew.  Cauliflower  must  never  stop  growing  or 
the  ground  get  dry;  they  must  have  an  abundance  of 
moisture.  Run  the  water  down  the  rows  every  night  if 
the  weather  is  pretty  hot;  however,  cauliflower  succeeds 
best  if  fully  matured  before  hot  weather  sets  in,  which 
generally  comes  early  in  June. 

When  they  commence  to  head,  gather  the  leaves  to- 
gether and  tie  loosely  over  the  heads;  this  greatly  facili- 
tates blanching,  and  protects  them  from  getting  brown 
and  bitter  from  the  effects  of  the  hot  sun.  They  should  be 
examined  often,  and  cut  while  the  head  is  close  and  com- 
pact, as,  after  the  head  opens,  it  separates  into  branches, 
gets  coarse,  tough,  fibrous,  strong  flavored,  and  conse- 
quently almost  if  not  wholly  worthless. 

A  cauliflower  would  be  an  ungrateful  thing  if  it  did  not 
grow  with  Mr.  Adams'  treatment.  But  it  will  grow  and 
grow  immensely.  Fortunately,  it  is  not  necessary  in  all 
places  to  do  quite  so  much  work,  or  field  growth  for  ex- 
port would  languish.  If  the  reader  will  discern  the  con- 
ditions which  Mr.  Adams  secures  he  will  be  profited,  for 
they  underlie  the  success  of  the  plant  in  all  situations. 


VARIETIES  OF  CAULIFLOWER.  233 

Inter-Culture  with  Cauliflower. — Either  with  cabbage  or 
cauliflower  some  inter-cropping  could  be  done  in  the  irri- 
gated garden  if  the  fullest  use  of  the  space  must  be  made. 
In  early  spring  planting,  lettuce  plants  grown  in  a  seed 
bed  can  be  set  between  cauliflowers  at  the  same  time  of 
setting  out  the  plants.  As  soon  as  the  lettuce  is  ready 
to  cut,  plant  some  variety  of  early  beans  close  to  the  let- 
tuce, and  by  the  time  the  lettuce  is  cut  the  beans  are  up ; 
and  by  this  time  the  cauliflower  is  ready  to  cut.  Pull  the 
stumps  as  the  cauliflower  is  cut  and  this  gives  the  ground 
to  the  coming  crop  of  beans.  Thus  three  crops  can  be 
raised  on  the  same  ground  the  same  season.  This  crop- 
ping can  only  be  done  on  a  summer  crop  of  cauliflower. 
For  winter  cauliflower,  set  Hanson's  lettuce  between  each 
plant,  and  in  this  way  have  early  lettuce  when  lettuce  is 
scarce.  Other  combinations  and  successions  will  readily 
suggest  themselves. 

Varieties  of  Cauliflower. — Several  varieties  are  popular 
in  this  State : 

Early  Snowball :  early  and  a  sure  header ;  large,  white, 
and  fine ;  robust,  counted  the  best  all-round  early  variety. 

California  Wonder:  this  variety  originated  with  C.  C. 
Morse  &  Co.,  of  San  Francisco ;  it  comes  into  market  soon 
after  the  Early  Snowball,  producing  much  larger  heads, 
and  of  the  finest  quality.  It  has  been  extensively  grown 
for  the  Eastern  market. 

California  Pearl  of  Aggeler  &  Musser  Seed  Co.  of  Los 
Angeles:  held  to  be  specially  suited  to  semi-tropical  cli- 
mates and  for  shipment  because  of  full  leaf  cover  of  head. 

Germain's  Dry  Weather  of  Germain  Seed  &  Plant  Co. 
of  Los  Angeles,  enduring  heat  and  drouth  better  than 
other  varieties:  heads  large  as  Snowball  and  almost  as 
early ;  held  to  be  specially  suited  to  arid  regions. 

California  Mammoth :  of  local  origin,  exceedingly  large ; 
commended  for  local  use  only. 

Extra  Early  Paris:  head  medium  size;  compact,  stem 
short ;  a  hardy  kind  and  rather  easy  to  grow. 


234  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES. 

Extra  Early  Erfurt :  very  early,  small  leaves ;  solid,  fine 
quality. 

Autumn  Giant :  late ;  large,  white,  firm  and  solid ;  keeps 
condition  well. 

Large  Algiers  :  fine  for  a  late  variety ;  especially  popular 
in  southern  California. 

Lenormand's  Short  Stemmed:  large,  fine  and  compact; 
stocky  growth;  heads  late  and  protects  itself  well  with 
foliage. 

Nonpareil  or  Half-Early  Paris :  a  mid-season  variety  of 
good  standing. 

BROCCOLI. 

This  is  another  variety  of  the  same  botanical  species  as 
the  cauliflower.  It  is  hardier  and  of  slower  growth,  but  is 
smaller  in  the  head  than  cauliflower  and  counted  less  de- 
sirable otherwise.  It  is  grown  to  a  very  slight  extent,  and 
cuts  very  little  figure  in  California.  It  is  grown  in  the 
same  ways  as  the  cauliflower  but  it  takes  longer  to  reach 
maturity.  People  who  fail  with  cauliflower  might  make 
a  trial  of  its  poor  relation  which  is  less  exacting.  Two  va- 
rieties are  commonly  grown,  the  white  and  the  purple. 

Mr.  Albert  F.  Etter  of  Briceland,  Humboldt  county, 
exalts  broccoli  as  not  only  equal  to  cauliflower,  but  better 
adapted  to  conditions  in  many  places  in  California.  It  is 
slower  in  heading,  but  some  early  varieties  of  broccoli 
come  in  near  to  the  late  cauliflowers.  Broccoli  should  not 
be  sown  too  early  nor  should  it  be  forced  along  until  the 
moist  air  of  autumn  comes  with  the  rains.  Then  it  will 
advance  splendidly,  and  good  full  heads  can  be  had  from 
Christmas  until  February.  A  temperature  as  low  as  17° 
will  not  hurt  them  much,  and  not  at  all  if  the  leaves  are 
tied  up  over  the  developing  head.  Broccoli  will  make  a 
good  fall  and  winter  growth  on  land  which  is  rather  poor, 
if  a  moderate  amount  of  manure  is  spread  around  the 
plants  at  the  beginning  of  the  rainy  season. 

BORECOLE  OR  KALE. 
This  term  covers  the  non-heading  cabbages,  with  a  won- 


KALES  AND  COLLARDS.  235 

derful  variety  of  form  and  foliage,  and  a  record  divided 
between  use  and  ornament.  There  is  a  host  of  varieties, 
some  of  which  are  grown  for  the  tender  shoots  :  others  for 
the  foliage.  The  edible  sorts  are  very  little  grown  in 
California:  those  used  for  garnishment  are  frequently 
seen.  The  two  varieties  most  known  are  the  Tall  Green 
Curled  or  Scotch  and  the  Dwarf  Curled  or  German  Greens. 
The  plants  are  very  hardy  and  are  winter-grown. 

TALL  GROWING  COLLARDS. 

The  Jersey  Kale  or  Tree  Cabbage  is  quite  widely  dis- 
tributed and  has  won  high  favor  as  food  for  cows  and 
poultry.  It  is  perennial  in  the  coast  regions  of  the  central 
and  southern  parts  of  the  State,  and  endures  defoliating 
very  well.  It  is  less  thrifty  in  the  interior  heat  and 
drought. 

The  Oregon  Kale  is  an  old  European  collard,  sometimes 
called  Thousand  Headed  Cabbage.  It  belongs  to  the  same 
class  as  Jersey  Kale,  but  has  thinner  stems  and  is,  there- 
fore, more  easily  handled  with  mowing  or  corn-cutting 
machinery.  It  was  introduced  in  the  Willamette  Valley, 
Oregon,  more  than  a  third  of  a  century  ago,  but  only  re- 
cently has  its  value  been  recognized  as  a  winter  feed  for 
stock  and  largely  grown.  It  endures  local  freezing  and  is 
hauled  from  the  fields  as  needed  for  feeding.  The  plants 
are  grown  in  field  drills  and  transplanted  in  May  to  the 
land  to  be  covered  with  it,  the  plants  being  set  in  every 
third  furrow  as  the  field  is  plowed  and  covered  in  with 
the  next  furrow,  the  ground  being  afterwards  rolled  to 
compact  the  dirt  around  the  roots.  Planting  with  a  ma- 
chine on  land  previously  plowed  and  harrowed  is  also 
practiced.  Kale  may  also  be  grown  in  the  way  already 
described  for  field  growth  of  cabbage  except  that  the 
plants  should  be  given  rather  more  room.  In  California 
the  plant  is  likely  to  be  of  value  for  stock  feeding  by  fall 
planting  and  winter  growth  as  well  as  by  summer  growth 
to  stand  for  winter  use  as  in  Oregon.  In  fact,  winter 
growth  for  summer  feeding  may  also  be  practicable  in 


236  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES. 

California,  especially  near  the  coast.  As  with  other  mem- 
bers of  the  cabbage  family,  dairy  cows  should  be  fed  kale 
just  after  milking  to  avoid  risk  of  tainting  the  milk. 


CHAPTER  XVII. 
THE  CARROT,  PARSNIP  AND  SALSIFY. 

Carrot. — Daucus  carota. 

French,  carotte ;  German,  mohre,  gelbriibe ;  Dutch,  wor- 
tel;  Italian,  carota;  Spanish,  zanahoria;  Portuguese, 
cenoura. 

Parsnip. — Pastinaca  saliva. 

French,  panais;  German,  pastinake;  Dutch,  pastinaak; 
Danish,  pastinak;  Italian,  pastinaca;  Spanish,  chirivia; 
Portuguese,  pastinaga. 

Salsify. — Tragopogong  porrifolius. 

French,  salsifis;  German,  haferworzel;  Flemish,  haver- 
wortel;  Danish,  havrerod;  Italian,  barba  di  becco;  Span- 
ish, salsifi  bianco ;  Portuguese,  cercifi. 

The  carrot  is  a  very  popular  root  in  California,  and  is 
grown  in  all  parts  of  the  State,  both  for  the  table  and  for 
stock  feeding.  It  is  perfectly  hardy  in  all  temperatures 
which  come  to  California  valleys  and  foothills.  It  is 
patient  during  drought  and  proceeds  quickly  with  its 
growth  with  renewed  moisture,  which  is  a  very  valuable 
characteristic  in  growing  the  carrot  for  stock  feeding,  but 
table  carrots  should  not  be  subjected  to  this  ordeal,  but 
should  be  pushed  with  adequate  moisture  quickly  from 
the  seed  to  size  to  secure  the  desired  tenderness  and  mild 
flavor.  To  attain  the  coveted  weight  for  stock  feeding, 
however,  it  is  quite  an  advantage  to  have  the  rain  beyond 
the  dry  season,  as  well  as  before  it,  because  early  sowing 
in  cold,  wet  ground  does  not  suit  the  plant  and  late  sow- 
ing does  not  give  the  plant  time  enough  except  on  irri- 
gated land,  to  do  its  best  in  size  before  the  dry  season 
checks  its  growth.  By  proper  practice,  then,  it  is  pos- 
sible to  produce  great  crops  of  carrots  in  the  drier  parts 
of  the  State,  as  well  as  in  the  moister  lands  and  regions. 


238  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES. 

Soil  and  Tillage. — The  requirements  of  the  carrot  so 
closely  resemble  that  of  the  beet  that  the  reader  is  re- 
ferred to  the  suggestions  for  culture  already  given  for  the 
beet.  The  carrot  has  the  same  liking  for  a  light,  warm 
soil,  and  the  same  reasons  exist  for  a  deep  and  thorough 
preparation  of  the  soil ;  for,  though  the  carrot,  if  the  seed 
is  sown  after  the  chill  and  surplus  water  have  gone  out  of 
a  heavy  soil,  will  do  very  well  if  well  cultivated,  it  pro- 
duces the  largest  and  most  shapely  roots  when  it  can 
deeply  penetrate  and  easily  displace  the  soil  in  its  ex- 
pansion. Carrot  ground  should,  then,  receive  early  work- 
ing to  receive  the  rains,  and  be  plowed  again  and  well 
loosened  up  and  fined  before  the  seed  is  sown. 

Sowing  Carrot  Seed. — It  is  very  necessary  that  the  soil 
should  be  in  good  condition.  Sowing  in  the  fall  on  irri- 
gated ground  is  practicable,  and  so  is  sowing  immediately 
after  the  early  fall  rains  have  moistened  the 'soil  suffici- 
ently to  prevent  drying  out,  but  if  the  place  is  quite  frosty 
and  the  soil  apt  to  be  water-soaked,  later  planting  is  bet- 
ter. For  this  reason,  as  already  stated,  some  prefer  to 
bridge  the  dry  season,  sowing  in  March  or  even  in  April, 
so  that  the  young  plant  may  have  the  best  conditions  at 
the  start.  As  it  gets  age  it  becomes  hardier  and  can  be 
taken  from  the  ground  in  good  condition  and  maximum 
size  all  during  the  following  winter.  Late  sowing  is  also 
advocated  because  of  the  opportunity  to  kill  weeds  by 
plowing  in  the  winter  growth  before  seeding.  This  prac- 
tice is  generally  approved  in  the  coast  regions  of  the 
northern  part  of  the  State.  On  the  other  hand,  in  south- 
ern Califoria,  and  in  most  parts  of  the  San  Joaquin  and 
Sacramento  valleys,  on  the  lighter  soils  especially,  a  start 
from  the  seed  in  December  or  January,  when  weather  and 
soil  favor  it,  gives  the  plant  a  chance  to  root  weir  before 
the  dry  season  and  then  it  is  in  much  better  condition  to 
stand  heat  and  drought  than  if  younger.  Both  practices 
are  rational  and  each  is  adapted  to  its  own  set  of  condi- 
tions. 

Carrot  seed  must  be  fresh.     It  is  small,  rather  difficult 


GROWING  CARROTS.  239 

to  handle  evenly,  and  requires  a  shallow  covering  of  earth. 
It  is  more  difficult  to  get  a  good  stand  of  carrots  than  of 
beets,  but  care  will  insure  it  with  good  seed.  Distribution 
is  facilitated  by  mixing  the  seed  thoroughly  with  a  cer- 
tain amount  of  moist  sand,  and  if  the  mixture  is  kept  warm 
and  moist  the  seed  may  be  allowed  to  sprout  slightly  be- 
fore sowing,  but  not  too  far.  The  seed  must  be  placed  in 
moist  ground,  and  half  an  inch  is  covering  enough  except 
in  light  soils  likely  to  dry  down.  The  seed  should  be 
pressed  down  well  or  the  soil  firmly  about  it,  and  then 
lightly  covered  and  the  covering  pressed  slightly. 

Cultivation. — Carrots  in  field  culture  are  usually  grown 
in  rows  two  to  three  feet  apart  according  to  the  notion  of 
the  growrer.  Thinning  in  the  row  is  seldom  done  though 
the  advantage  of  it  would  be  shown  in  better  roots  just  as 
with  beets.  Growers  shrink,  however,  from  the  expense 
and  prefer  to  trust  to  frequent  cultivation  between  the 
rows. 

Ridge  Culture  of  Carrots. — Where  it  is  desired  to  get 
an  early  start  in  a  locality  with  a  heavy  rainfall  the  ridge 
system  gives  good  results.  Choose  rich  soil,  plow  after 
the  first  rain,  and  then  in  January  or  February  when  the 
ground  gets  warm  (according  to  the  season  and  locality) 
cross-plow  and  harrow  until  the  ground  is  thoroughly 
pulverized.  Then  ridge  some  two  or  three  and  a  half  feet 
apart,  rake  off  the  combs  of  the  furrows,  making  them 
level  on  top  and  free  from  lumps.  Put  in  the  seed  by  hand 
or  with  a  seed  drill  covering  lightly,  cultivate  and  thin 
out  for  cow-feed  during  the  summer  and  the  crop  will  be 
of  good  uniform  size  for  horse-feed  during  the  following 
winter  and  spring.  Though  this  practice  is  still  followed 
by  some  it  has  been  widely  superseded  in  field  work  by 
later  sowing  and  flat  culture.  For  an  early  start  in  the 
farm  garden  it  has,  however,  some  advantages. 

Harvesting. — This  is  done  by  pulling,  after  loosening 
with  the  plow.  The  time,  as  already  stated,  is  usually  dur- 
ing the  winter,  but  feeding  often  commences  in  the  fall 
and  continues  for  several  months — just  as  with  mangels. 


240  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES. 

Field  Varieties. — Several  large,  yellow  and  white  va- 
rieties are  used  for  stock  purposes.  The  richer  color  and 
more  convenient  size  of  the  yellow  varieties,  like  the  Long 
Orange,  hold  them  in  favor  as  a  marketable  stock  carrot, 
but  the  large  size  and  greater  crop  of  the  Large  White 
Belgian  makes  it  a  favorite  where  the  crop  is  to  be  fed 
at  home.  This  variety  is  grown  in  all  California  dairy 
regions.  It  sometimes  reaches  a  weight  of  16  pounds  or 
more  and  a  yield  of  over  40  tons  to  the  acre  on  rich,  deep 
land,  though  half  these  figures  would  better  suit  average 
conditions.  Half-long  Giant  White  has  the  advantage  of 
bulk  without  great  depth. 

Garden  Carrots. — As  already  stated  garden  carrots 
should  be  grown  quickly  with  acceptable  heat  and  mois- 
ture. Simple  forcing  conditions,  like  a  bed  of  five  or  six 
inches  of  good  loam  over  a  foot  or  more  of  tamped  man- 
ure and  a  slight  protective  covering  will  give  very  sweet 
and  tender  roots  to  the  short  varieties  in  our  coldest 
weather.  But  so  much  can  be  done  with  the  ridge  system 
or  with  raised  beds  described  in  a  previous  chapter  and 
with  other  simple  modifications  of  open  air  conditions  that 
very  little  forcing  is  done. 

Country  gardeners,  as  a  rule,  do  not  know  much  about 
the  best  table  carrots.  They  supply  their  tables  and  their 
stock  too  often  from  the  same  sowing  when  much  sweeter 
and  tenderer  roots  should  be  grown  in  the  garden  by  small 
sowings  of  the  improved  table  varieties.  Those  which  are 
most  grown  in  California  are  the  following: 

Early  French  forcing  carrot:  very  early,  small,  globu- 
lar form,  and  fine  flavor. 

Ox-heart  or  Guerande :  very  short,  almost  cup-shaped, 
very  rapid  grower,  early  and  excellent.  Considerably  im- 
proved recently  by  selection. 

Half  Long  Danvers :  a  popular  market  variety,  strong 
grower  and  succeeding  on  a  wide  range  of  soils ;  rich  color 
and  good  flavor. 

Improved  Long  Orange :  smoother  and  more  uniform 
than  the  old  sort;  also  better  flavor  and  color. 


THE  PARSNIP.  241 

Chantenay:  short  and  sturdy,  bright  orange-scarlet, 
early. 

Improved  Short  White:  best  of  the  whites,  short  and 
cylindrical. 

Red  St.  Valery :  one  of  the  best  of  the  medium  long  va- 
rieties. 

Early  Scarlet  or  Short  Horn :  largely  grown  and  of 
good  quality. 

Champion  Scarlet  Horn:  an  English  variety,  rather 
large  but  rich  in  flavor  and  tender  throughout,  deep  red 
color,  commended  for  quality. 

THE  PARSNIP. 

Parsnips  are  not  largely  grown  in  California.  Two  con- 
siderations may  be  involved  in  an  explanation  of  this  fact  : 
one  is  that  our  winter  supply  of  fresher  vegetables  re- 
lieves us  from  dependence  upon  root-boiling,  which  is  the 
staple  resource  of  so  many  dwellers  in  cold  climates ;  an- 
other is,  that  the  parsnip,  if  sown  early,  is  not  always  con- 
tent to  remain  dormant  and  crisp  for  months  as  it  does 
beneath  the  snow.  It  quickly  responds  to  our  winter 
warmth  and  moisture  and  starts  second  growth,  which 
renders  the  root  woody  and  flavorless.  It  is  quite  possible 
for  parsnip  lovers  in  warm,  moist  regions  to  overcome  this 
by  mid-summer  sowing  or  it  can  be  prevented  in  other 
places  by  digging  the  roots  and  storing  them  in  boxes  or 
barrels  of  sand  in  a  dry,  cool  place,  and  it  really  should  be 
urged  that  this  be  done  more  widely,  because  those  who 
are  not  fitted  by  location  or  inclination  to  start  fall  growth 
of  vegetables  for  winter  eating,  should  have  a  good  sup- 
ply of  parsnips,  which  are,  to  most  tastes,  delicious.  It  is 
not  to  be  expected  in  this  climate  that  the  parsnip  will  be 
called  upon  to  render  the  important  service  that  it  does 
in  the  East  whenever  the  snow  uncovers  the  ground  in 
the  winter  or  spring,  because  at  that  very  time  we  have 
abundance  of  fresh  vegetables  hardy  in  our  climate. 

Soil  and  Culture. — The  excellence  of  the  parsnip  is 
vested  in  a  well-developed  root,  and  to  secure  this,  rich, 


242  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES. 

deep,  and  permeable  soil  and  adequate  moisture  are  re- 
quired. Deep  cultivation  and  manuring  will  secure  these 
qualities  even  in  rather  a  heavy  soil,  but  the  use  of  ma- 
nure the  previous  year  for  another  crop  to  be  followed  by 
parsnips  is  the  proper  course,  for  roots  on  freshly  man- 
ured land  are  apt  to  be  misshapen.  Parsnip  seed  is  light 
and  should  receive  a  shallow  covering  but  it  is  necessary 
that  it  should  be  well  firmed  in  moist  soil  ta  secure  ger- 
mination. As  soon  as  the  plants  are  two  or  three  inches 
high  the  rows  should  be  cle  aned  of  weeds,  the  plants 
spaced,  and  frequent  use  of  the  cultivator  begun,  to  con- 
tinue all  summer.  The  suggestions  made  for  the  prepara- 
tion of  soil  and  cultivation  of  the  beet  and  the  carrot  have 
direct  application  to  the  growth  of  the  parsnip,  and  the 
reader  is  referred  to  them.  In  garden  culture  good  roots 
can  be  grown  in  rows  about  15  inches  apart,  and  the  plants 
thinned  to  half  that  distance  in  the  rows  to  leave  room  for 
development. 

In  the  rainy  parts  of  the  State  it  is  customary  to  sow 
parsnips  as  soon  as  the  ground  is  in  good  condition  in 
February,  as  the  plant  is  quite  hardy.  From  this  date  on- 
ward the  seed  can  be  successfully  sown  as  long  as  the  soil 
has  moisture  enough,  and  in  moist  interior  lands  seed  can 
be  sown  in  July,  or  even  later,  and  the  plants  will  make  a 
good  fall  growth  and  be  ready  for  winter  use  from  the 
ground,  as  late  sowing  in  a  warm  region  with  moisture 
assured,  carries  the  plant  along  without  danger  of  a  check 
and  a  second  growth. 

Varieties.— Varieties  of  parsnips  which  prevail  in  this 
State  are  as  follows : 

Hollow  Crown  or  Student :  long,  large,  smooth  roots  in 
deep  soils ;  tender,  sweet,  and  fine  flavored  when  well 
grown.  This  is  the  chiefly  grown  variety. 

Improved  Guernsey :  half -long,  shorter  and  thicker  than 
the  foregoing. 

Devonshire  :  another  short  variety  popular  with  market 
gardeners  in  southern  California. 


SALSIFY.  243 

Round  or  Turnip  Rooted:  better  suited  for  shallow 
soils,  owing  to  shape ;  develops  faster  than  the  long  type. 

SALSIFY  OR  VEGETABLE  OYSTER. 

This  delicious  root  stands  subject  to  the  same  conditions 
which  have  limited  the  growth  of  parsnips  in  this  State, 
but  its  popularity  has  increased  greatly  during  the  last 
few  years.  The  requirements  of  the  plant  in  soil,  culture, 
and  season  correspond  very  closely  to  the  parsnip.  The 
seed  is  a  little  more  difficult  to  start,  and  pretty  generous 
seeding  in  soil  sure  to  retain  fair  moisture,  and  a  slightly 
deeper  covering  than  with  parsnip  seed  are  desirable. 
Thinning  is  essential  but  the  root  is  slimmer  and  does  not 
require  so  much  room.  One  variety  comprises  the  chief 
local  interest,  the  Mammoth  Sandwich  Island.  It  is  large 
and  otherwise  better  than  the  older  kinds  although  the 
Long  White  is  still  grown. 


CHAPTER  XVIII. 
CELERY. 

Celery. — Apium  graveolens. 

French,  celeri;  German,  sellerie;  Danish,  seller!;  Italian, 
sedano  apio ;  Spanish,  apio. 

Celeriac. — Idem. 

French,  celeri-rave;  German,  knoll-sellerie ;  Dutch, 
knoll-selderij  ;  Danish,  knold-selleri ;  Italian,  sedano-rapa ; 
Spanish,  apio-nabo. 

California  celery  taken  from  the  field  during  the  winter 
months  and  delivered  in  the  Eastern  markets  by  frost- 
proof cars  has,  during  the  last  few  years,  made  decided 
progress  in  competition  with  the  Eastern  product  taken 
from  frost-proof  storage  in  pits,  or  specially-constructed 
celery  houses.  On  certain  well-suited  soils  in  regions  sub- 
ject to  coast  influences,  and,  therefore,  with  moderated 
summer  temperature,  the  celery  plant  makes  a  grand  sum- 
mer growth,  with  or  without  irrigation,  according  to  the 
natural  moisture  of  the  soil,  and  encounters  no  fall  or 
winter  temperature  which  injures  it  in  the  open  field.  In 
fact,  in  these  special  localities  and  soils,  which  will  be  de- 
scribed presently,  the  plant  finds  naturally  provided  those 
conditions  for  splendid  development  which,  in  less  favored 
regions,  can  only  be  secured  by  considerable  artifice  and 
investment.  For  these  reasons  commercial  celery  grow- 
ing for  distant  markets  is  a  rapidly  advancing  industry, 
and  has  given  great  value  to  lands  suited  to  its  uses.  It 
is  estimated  that  not  less  than  6000  acres  have  been  plant- 
ed in  a  single  year  in  Orange  county,  and  that  the  aver- 
age value  of  the  product  on  board  cars  at  the  nearest  sta- 
tion is  from  $250  to  $400  per  acre,  according  to  price  and 
product — except,  of  course,  when  disease  causes  losses  as 
will  be  mentioned  later.  There  is  also  a  considerable  pro- 


LOCATIONS  FOR  CELERY.  245 

duct  for  shipment  grown  on  moist  lowlands  near  Stock- 
ton and  Sacramento,  and  large  plantings  have  been  made 
in  some  years,  near  Arroyo  Grande,  San  Luis  Obispo 
county. 

In  many  parts  of  the  State,  especially  on  low,  moist 
lands  which  are  frequently  of  saline  character,  wild  celery 
grows  thriftily,  and  its  growth  has  served  as  an  incentive 
to  commercial  planting.  This  wild  celery  is,  however,  not 
a  native  plant.  It  is  merely  the  garden  celery  which  has 
escaped  from  cultivation  and  the  escape  must  have  been 
at  an  early  date,  for  the  occurrence  was  noted  by  botanists 
at  least  40  years  ago.  It  is  now  widely  distributed. 

Locations  for  Celery. — Celery  thrives  best  in  an  equable, 
cool  temperature,  but  it  accepts  conditions  in  the  "cool- 
night"  region  of  the  interior  valley.  It  does  not  well  en- 
dure high  heat ;  it  is  hardy  against  California  valley  frosts, 
and  it  demands  adequate  moisture.  It  may,  therefore,  be 
successfully  grown  in  the  fall  and  winter  in  regions  where 
summer  heat  is  too  high  for  it  and  in  the  equable  coast 
climate  it  can  be  enjoyed  all  the  year,  providing  ample 
soil  moisture  can  be  assured.  Commercially,  it  is  summer 
grown  for  winter  shipment  because  it  is  then  best  re- 
ceived in  the  Eastern  markets. 

Soils. — Aside  from  abundant  moisture  the  chief  require- 
ment of  the  plant  is  large  amounts  of  decomposed  vege- 
table matter  in  the  soil.  This  is  provided  in  ordinary 
garden  soils  by  the  free  use  of  well-rotted  manure,  mixing 
it  thoroughly  with  the  soil  by  deep  digging  in  or  trench- 
ing, and  for  home  supplies  this  should  be  undertaken,  but 
those  who  can,  may  avail  themselves  of  the  conclusions  of 
a  grower  at  Castroville,  near  the  coast  in  Monterey  county, 
who,  after  trying  for  a  number  of  years,  almost  in  vain, 
to  raise  good  celery  on  an  ordinary  dry  garden  soil,  finally 
borrowed  the  use  of  a  little  patch  of  reclaimed  swamp 
land — deep,  black  muck,  well  drained  but  moist — and 
grew  on  it  very  fine  celery  with  but  little  labor.  In  un- 
dertaking production  on  a  commercial  scale  this  advan- 
tage of  specially  suited  soil  is  imperative.  An  instance  of 


246  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES. 

such  soil-fitness  is  found  in  the  peat  lands  where  celery 
growing  has  reached  the  importance  above  noted.  The 
soil  consists  very  largely  of  decomposed  vegetable  matter 
and  becoming  on  cultivation,  fine  and  homogeneous.  It  is 
different  from  the  partially-decomposed  and  coarse  ma- 
terial of  the  tule  swamps.  It  occurs  in  deposits  of  vary- 
ing thickness  and  sandwiched  with  layers  of  sediment  or 
clay,  the  peat  layers  being,  however,  connected  through 
the  dense  layers  by  openings  through  which  the  water 
rises  in  springs  and  sub-irrigates  the  surface  layer.  This 
surface  is  sometimes  treacherous.  Much  of  it  will  only 
support  horses  when  shod  with  plank  and  some  can  not 
be  traversed  with  animals  and  is  worked  by  drawing  tools 
back  and  forth  with  cables  from  firm  headlands  on  each 
side.  Still  it  is  so  productive  of  celery  that  even  such 
bottomless  land  has  been  rented  as  high  as  $20  per  acre 
per  year. 

The  improvement  of  peat  lands  for  celery  has  involved 
problems  of  reclamation.  First  open  ditches  were  resorted 
to,  but  as  the  area  of  celery  culture  extended,  under-drain- 
age  by  tiles  was  undertaken.  By  this  system  the  water 
is  absolutely  under  the  control  of  the  growers.  When  the 
drains  are  opened  the  lands  drain  until  the  water  is  three 
or  four  feet  below  the  surface.  When  drains  are  closed 
the  water  soon  rises  to  the  surface,  giving  a  most  effective 
mode  of  irrigation  for  which  water  is  pumped  into  the 
tile  ditches  from  shallow  wells. 

Although  these  peat  lands  are  very  rich  at  the  begin- 
ning, they  soon  invite  fertilization.  A  special  fertilizer 
for  celery  on  peat  soils  is  suggested  as  follows :  nitrogen, 
2%  ;  potash,  10%  ;  available  phosphoric  acid,  5%.  About 
a  ton  of  this  mixture  can  be  used  to  the  acre. 

Garden  Culture. — Celery  plants  are  grown  in  a  seed- 
bed for  transplanting  to  permanent  place.  The  seed  is 
very  small  and  very  slow  of  germination,  and  success  de- 
pends upon  maintaining  even  moisture  at  the  surface.  For 
starting  plants  in  winter  a  hot-bed  may  be  used,  but  high 
heat  is  neither  necessary  nor  desirable.  A  cold  frame 


A  CALIFORNIA  CELERY  FIELD. 


247 


with  cloth  cover  would  be  better.  But  it  is  quite  feasible 
in  coast  valley  situations  to  grow  the  plants  in  the  open 
air  early  enough  in  the  spring  to  get  the  crop  for  the  table 
from  November  onward.  Simple  and  correct  suggestions 


for  garden  culture  are  given  by  Mr.  S.  J.  Murdock,  of  Or- 
ange county,  as  follows : 

It  requires  from  three  to  four  months  from  time  of  sow- 
the  seed  till  the  plants  are  large  enough  to  plant  out.    The 


248  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES. 

warmer  the  weather  the  quicker  the  plants  will  grow,  and 
the  warmer  and  drier  the  atmosphere  is,  the  more  water 
the  seed-bed  will  need.  Select  rich,  friable  soil  and  sow 
the  seed  evenly  and  only  moderately  thick.  Cover  the  seed 
but  lightly,  as  they  are  very  small,  and  firm  the  soil  well. 
Keep  the  soil  or  bed  moist,  not  soaking  wet,  but  never 
dry,  and  have  patience  as  they  are  slow  to  germinate. 
Keep  free  from  weeds  and  thin  if  too  thick ;  one  plant  to 
the  square  inch  is  about  right.  When  the  plants  get  about 
three  inches  high,  clip  the  tops  off,  not  too  close,  but 
about  half  way,  and  continue  to  keep  the  bed  moist,  and 
when  about  four  inches  high  clip  again,  and  they  will  be 
ready  to  plant. 

In  about  a  week  or  ten  days  lift  the  plants  with  a  shovel 
or  garden  trowel  so  as  not  to  disturb  the  fine  roots  more 
than  is  necessary.  Trim  the  main  or  taproot  to  two  or 
three  inches  and  keep  the  roots  moist  until  planted.  Se- 
lect a  good,  rich  plat  where  water  is  handy,  as  the  ground 
should  be  as  moist  as  possible  to  work,  and  draw  shallow 
furrows,  say  about  four  inches  below  the  level,  and  put 
the  plants  six  inches  apart  in  the  row.  I  would  prefer  a 
single  row  of  sufficient  length  to  two  or  more  shorter  ones. 

Take  a  hard-wood  peg,  about  one  and  a  quarter  inches 
in  diameter  and  six  inches  long ;  sharpen  one  end  to  make 
the  holes  for  the  plants.  Put  the  roots  straight,  and  be 
sure  and  firm  the  soil  well  around  each  plant. 

Stir  the  ground  around  the  plants  and  keep  the  soil 
away  instead  of  up  to  them  till  the  plants  get  12  or  14  in- 
ches high,  then  work  the  soil  to  the  plants  (but  only  when 
they  are  dry) ,  and  keep  the  roots  moist.  If  in  the  interior 
valleys,  it  is  better  to  blanch  it  with  boards  than  by  bank- 
ing with  earth.  Blanch  by  setting  12-in.  boards  on  edge 
on  each  side  of  the  row  and  secure  them  with  stakes  stuck 
in  the  ground  and  tied  at  the  top,  or  some  dirt  thrown 
against  the  bottom  of  the  boards  and  the  tops  held  to- 
gether with  notched  strips.  It  requires  from  two  to  three 
weeks  to  blanch  the  White  Plume  and  longer  for  the  green 
sorts.  One  set  of  boards  will  blanch  two  or  three  lengths, 


FIELD  CULTURE  FOR  CELERY.  249 

as  they  can  be  moved  along  the  row  as  the  celery  is  used. 
Never  bank  or  board  it  when  wet,  and  be  sure  to  have  both 
bank  and  boards  close  enough  at  the  top  so  that  the  leaves 
will  shed  the  rain  to  the  outside. 

Bleaching  may  be  done  in  garden  culture  by  the  use  of 
drain  tiles  or  by  wrapping  the  plants  in  pieces  of  sack- 
ing, or  by  boards  on  each  side  of  the  row  of  plants.  Any 
arrangement  which  excludes  light  and  water  from  the 
stems  will  accomplish  the  desired  results. 

Celery  and  Potatoes. — Sometimes  an  alternation  of  po- 
tato and  celery  rows  is  favored.  The  potatoes  are  planted 
in  the  winter  months  and  they  shade  the  young  celery 
plants  when  they  are  first  planted,  and  when  the  celery 
rows  are  split  the  operation  banks  the  potatoes.  This  is 
for  moist  land  where  banking  of  potatoes  is  desirable. 

FIELD  CULTURE. 

Field  culture  of  celery  on  the  very  friable  peat  lands 
of  Orange  county  has  developed  appliances  and  processes 
which  are  very  effective  and  satisfactory,  and  cheapen 
production  to  an  extent  not  attainable  except  on  very 
friable  soils.  Still  the  practices  inculcate  the  ends  to  be 
attained  in  all  cases,  though  the  means  may  differ.  Mr.  S. 
J.  Murdock  has  given  a  very  explicit  description  of  the 
methods  he  has  found  most  satisfactory  in  his  experience, 
from  which  the  following  is  largely  compiled. 

The  Seed-bed. — A  seed-bed  which  is  naturally  moist  or 
which  can  be  sub-irrigated  is  preferable,  although  the 
raised  bed  with  irrigation  by  seepage,  or  other  arrange- 
ment for  maintaining  moisture  may  be  used.  The  soil 
must  be  light  and  free  from  baking.  The  seed-bed  should 
be  plowed  by  the  middle  of  December  and  left  rough  for 
the  action  of  frosts  and  rain,  and  about  two  weeks  before 
sowing,  harrow  down  and  thoroughly  hand  rake.  Let  it 
lie  till  seed-time,  which  is  from  March  to  June,  as  to  sea- 
son or  as  early  or  late  planting  is  desired.  The  early-sown 
seed  requires  longer  time  to  make  plants  large  enough  for 
planting,  but  if  planted  moderately  thick  and  well  cared 


250  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES. 

for,  makes  strong,  sturdy  plants.  At  planting  rake  the 
surface  thoroughly  again  with  a  sharp,  close-toothed  rake 
and  either  drill  or  sow  seed  broadcast.  The  drill  is  pre- 
ferable but  if  broadcast  lightly  rake  the  seed  in  and  either 
roll  or  firm  the  soil  thoroughly,  as  there  is  much  seed  lost 
by  neglecting  this  part.  The  seed-beds  are  generally  made 
from  four  to  six  feet  wide,  leaving  room  between  each 
bed  to  weed  and  clip  them,  which  constitutes  the  after 
care  except  to  keep  them  moist.  Keep  as  free  from  weeds 
as  possible,  and  when  the  plants  get  about  three  inches 
high,  clip  the  tops  about  half  way  down,  and  when  they 
get  three  or  four  inches  high,  if  not  ready  to  plant,  clip 
again,  as  the  keeping  of  tops  back  makes  the  roots  strong. 

Planting  in  the  Field. — The  land  should  be  thoroughly 
cleaned  of  trash  and  given  early  and  thorough  prepara- 
tion as  will  be  described  in  the  chapter  on  corn.  In 
Orange  county  planting  in  the  early  part  of  June  brings 
the  crop  for  Thanksgiving  and  in  July  for  the  holidays 
and  later  in  the  winter.  Laying  off  for  planting  is  done 
by  taking  off  all  but  the  three  inside  discs  of  a  disc  har- 
row, attaching  a  shovel  plow  in  the  middle  and  close  be- 
hind the  harrow,  and  following  this  with  a  5  or  6-foot 
roller  with  a  raised  belt  around  the  center,  which  runs  in 
the  plow  furrow  and  forms  a  compact  trench  about  6 
inches  deep.  Four  feet  is  the  usual  distance  between  the 
trenches,  and  the  plants  are  set  6  inches  apart  in  the  bot- 
tom of  the  trench. 

A  full  crew  of  planters  is  ten  men ;  one  to  lay  out  the 
furrows,  one  spacer  or  marker,  who  has  an  implement 
which  makes  from  four  to  twelve  holes  at  a  time,  depend- 
ing on  size  of  tool  used.  There  are  also  four  planters  and 
four  plant  pullers.  It  is  the  duty  of  the  first  man  to  draw 
the  furrows  as  straight  and  as  near  equi-distant  as  possi- 
ble, give  general  supervision  of  the  planting  and  see  that 
the  pullers  use  judgment  in  preparing  the  plants.  Unless 
the  plants  have  been  recently  clipped  in  the  bed,  both  tops 
and  roots  need  clipping  when  pulled,  so  as  to  leave  the 
main  or  taproot  about  two  and  one-half  or  three  inches 


HARVESTING  CELERY. 


251 


long,  and  the  tops  clipped  of  the  surplus  leaves.  They 
are  usually  put  in  large-sized  milk  pans,  the  roots  kept 
wet  and  delivered  to  the  planters  in  the  pans.  The  spacer 


makes  the  holes  for  the  plants  just  ahead  of  the  planter. 
Both  the  furrows  and  holes  for  plants  should  be  freshly 
made  so  as  to  have  no  dry  dirt  to  hinder  the  planters,  who 


252  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES. 

should  be  careful  and  painstaking,  as  the  plants  need  to 
be  put  in  the  proper  depth,  the  roots  straight  and  the 
soil  well  firmed  around  each  plant  and  no  unfilled  space 
beneath  the  plant  to  dry  out.  A  crew  should  plant  from 
an  acre  to  an  acre  and  a  half  per  day,  according  to  the 
condition  of  the  land  and  the  proper  oversight  of  the 
force.  This  mode  of  planting  leaves  the  plants  from  four 
to  six  inches  below  the  general  level.  There  are  about 
20,000  plants  to  the  acre,  of  which  perhaps  one-tenth  do 
not  reach  maturity  even  under  favorable  conditions. 

Crowding. — The  next  operation  is  called  crowding, 
which  is  done  by  a  tool  made  as  follows :  Take  a  common 
iron  or  steel  cultivator,  take  the  standards  and  shovels 
off,  then  take  two  pieces  of  steel  one-fourth  of  an  inch 
thick,  six  inches  wide  and  four  feet  long.  Sharpen  one 
edge  of  each  piece  and  bolt  to  the  outside  frames  of  the 
cultivator  so  that  the  tops  of  the  steel  bars  are  about  even 
with  the  top  of  the  frame  and  on  top  of  the  rear  half  of 
each,  add  eight  or  ten  inches  of  heavy  sheet  iron.  The 
Front  of  these  blades  should  be  from  five  to  six  inches 
apart  and  the  rear  about  30  inches.  In  a  week  or  ten  days 
after  planting,  hitch  two  steady  horses  to  this  tool  and 
crowd  the  dirt  away  from  each  side  of  the  rows.  This 
kills  the  new  weeds  just  starting  and  covers  up  all  in  the 
middle  of  the  rows  and  leaves  a  ridge  of  loose  soil.  Fol- 
low this  by  going  over  each  row  and  filling  in  all  the 
missing  plants  with  strong,  vigorous  ones  and  uncover  any 
plants  covered  by  clods  or  loose  dirt;  then  take  a  light, 
narrow  hoe  and  draw  between  each  plant.  When  plants 
get  larger,  work  the  soil  back  to  them  to  prevent  spread- 
ing. Keep  well  tilled,  and  soil  moist  by  irrigation  if 
necessary.  , 

Bleaching. — There  is  some  bleaching  with  boards  set  on 
edge  on  each  side  of  the  rows  secured  by  stakes  made  of 
lath,  stuck  in  the  ground  and  tied  together  at  the  top,  but 
it  is  done  mostly  by  banking  the  light,  loose  peat  soil  up 
to  the  plants.  This  is  done  by  a  machine  made  the  re- 
verse of  the  crowded  described  for  first  use,  and  much 


MARKETING  CELERY.  253 

larger  and  heavier.  It  is  used  with  wide  end  forward, 
which  draws  and  crowds  the  earth  up  to  the  plants.  From 
16  to  20  days  will  generally  bleach  the  variety  grown,  the 
White  Plume,  which  is  grown  almost  exclusively,  not  that 
it  is  the  best,  but  trade  demands  it  and  it  is  the  easiest  to 
raise,  as  it  requires  less  labor  and  is  more  easily  bleached 
than  other  sorts. 

Harvesting. — The  harvesting  is  done  with  a  U-shaped 
cutter  attached  to  a  suitable  frame,  drawn  on  each  side 
and  under  the  rows  of  banked  celery,  cutting  off  the  roots 
and  raising  them  in  the  loose  soil.  This  is  followed  by 
the  trimmers,  who  lift  the  plants,  trim  off  the  outer  stalk 
and  square  the  roots.  It  is  now  ready  to  tie  in  bunches 
or  crate. 

Marketing. — Celery  is  shipped  in  crates,  22x24  in.  base, 
which  holds  six  to  eight  dozen  of  celery,  according  to  size. 
An  average  crate  will  weigh  about  145  pounds,  and  160 
crates  make  an  average  carload.  Some  eastern  dealers 
prefer  the  celery  shipped  in  bulk  or  on  decks  built  in  the 
car.  This  is  a  much  cheaper  way  to  ship,  and  is  claimed 
by  some  to  be  just  as  safe.  In  shipping  in  this  way,  three 
decks  are  built  in  the  car,  and  the  celery  is  tied  in  bunches 
of  one  dozen  each  and  stood  upright  with  roots  resting  on 
the  decks.  By  this  method  three  or  four  hundred  dozen 
more  celery  can  be  packed  in  a  car.  Celery  is  shipped  to 
all  the  principal  cities  of  the  United  States  and  Canada, 
and  carries  successfully.  The  marketing  of  the  crop  is 
largely  done  by  associations  of  growers. 

Celery  Blight. — Occasionally  atmospheric  conditions  fa- 
vor the  growth  of  a  leaf  fungus  known  as  celery  blight, 
and  great  losses  have  resulted  in  some  years.  Recent  ex- 
perience shows  that  the  blight  is  subject  to  control  by 
spraying  the  plants  with  the  Bordeaux  mixture  as  soon 
as  signs  of  the  incroachment  of  the  disease  appear,  or 
when  weather  conditions  indicate  the  danger  to  be  immi- 
nent. Special  publications  on  this  subject  can  be  had 
from  the  University  Experiment  Station  at  Berkeley. 

Varieties. — As  already  stated,  the  White  Plume  is  the 


254  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES. 

chief  variety  grown  for  shipment,  and  enterprising  sales- 
men have  secured  improved  sub-varieties  by  selection. 
Self-blanching  is  grown,  and  it  is  highly  esteemed  by 
local  gardeners.  It  will  be  well  for  home  growers  to  try 
also  some  of  the  higher  quality  varieties  offered  by  the 
seedsmen  when  they  are  ready  to  take  particular  pains 
to  grow  them  well. 

CELERAIC. 

The  turnip-rooted  celery  is  very  desirable  for  cooking 
and  salad  purposes.  It  is  grown  in  nearly  the  same  way 
as  ordinary  celery,  except  that  it  is  allowed  to  make  free 
top  growth  without  blanching,  as  the  root  is  the  edible 
part. 


CHAPTER  XIX. 
CHICORY. 

Large  Rooted  Chicory. — Cichorium  Intylus. 

French,  chicoree  sauvage;  German,  cichorie;  Danish, 
sichorie;  Italian,  cicoria;  Spanish,  achicoria;  Portuguese, 
chicoria. 

The  Endive. — Chicoria  endivia. 

French,  chicoree  endive;  German,  endivien;  Dutch,  an- 
dijvie ;  Danish,  endivien ;  Italian,  indivia ;  Spanish,  en- 
divia. 

The  chicory  plant  cuts  a  very  small  figure  at  present  in 
the  general  gardening  of  Californians.  The  use  of  the 
blanched  leaves,  forced  in  the  dark  from  mature  roots 
bedded  in  sand,  is  confined  to  a  few  foreigners  who  know 
the  larbe-de-capucin  of  the  French  or  the  witloof  of  the 
Germans.  It  is  a  delicious  vegetable,  either  raw,  boiled, 
or  as  a  salad.  Nor  are  the  leaves  in  their  natural  state 
much  used  here  for  salad.  Both  of  these  uses  of  the  plant 
should  be  more  widely  known  in  California,  for  the  culti- 
vated growth  of  the  roots  in  this  State  is  very  fine,  and 
for  running  wild,  as  an  escape  from  flower  garden  culture, 
it  might  be  denounced  as  a  vile  weed  were  not  its  large 
blue  flowers  so  beautiful  upon  the  yellow  of  our  dry  sum- 
mer fields  and  roadsides. 

Viewing  the  plant  as,  yielding  a  root  rather  than  a  foli- 
age crop,  it  is  of  much  importance  in  this  State.  The  root, 
sliced,  dried,  roasted  and  coarsely  ground,  is  the  "chic- 
ory" of  commerce — the  adulterant  of  coffee  which  nearly 
every  one  denounces  in  theory  and  enjoys  in  practice ;  for 
the  occurrence  of  absolutely  pure  coffee  is  so  restricted 
that  it  often,  at  first,  offends  the  palate  of  the  unaccustom- 


256  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES. 

ed  drinker.  California  chicory  growers  have  for  years 
contested  the  American  markets  with  German  chicory, 
and  a  very  capacious  factory  has  been  in  operation  near 
Stockton  for  the  last  35  years,  and  formerly  there  was 
another  near  Sacramento.  The  vicissitudes  of  tariff  legis- 
lation during  this  period  have  made  the  business  uncer- 
tain, sometimes  very  profitable,  sometimes  not,  according 
as  the  German  product  entered  free  or  paid  duty.  If  the 
tariff  would  maintain  a  favorable  attitude,  California 
could  furnish  cheap  coffee  for  the  whole  country  and  beet- 
sugar  for  its  sweetening  besides.  During  the  last  few 
years,  however,  the  business  has  been  reduced  in  Califor- 
nia by  the  overflow  of  the  lands  used  but  may  be  expected 
to  reassert  itself.  For  the  home-grower  of  coffee  counter- 
feits, the  chicory  plant  offers  a  better  material  than  the 
"coffee  bean"  and  other  substitutes  which  are  offered. 
The  growth  of  the  plant  and  its  preparation  for  the  break- 
fast table  are  quite  simple. 

Chicory  grows  to  perfection  on  light  sedimentary  soils 
which  afford  the  root  opportunity  for  expansion,  and  re- 
tain moisture  enough  for  its  thrift  during  the  long,  dry 
summer.  The  plant  is  hardy  and  the  seed  is  usually  sown 
in  February.  The  preparation  of  the  soil,  sowing,  thin- 
ning, weeding  and  cultivation,  are  identical  with  the  same 
operations  for  the  sugar  beet  already  described.  The  ex- 
pense with  chicory  is,  at  present  at  least,  considerably 
greater  than  with  the  beet,  because  the  moist  land  which 
is  used  gives  more  persistent  weed  growth  and  occasions 
an  amount  of  hard  work  which  is  appalling  to  an  observer. 
The  crop  partly  compensates  for  this  outlay,  because  the 
value  per  ton  is  twice  as  great  as  the  sugar  beet,  and  the 
crop  is  not  enough  less  in  weight  tp  equalize  things.  The 
average  crop  on  Roberts  island,  near  Stockton,  in  favor- 
able years  is  about  ten  tons  to  the  acre,  though  some  years 
the  average  will  go  to  12  and  the  best  crops  to  15  tons  per 
acre.  The  factory  price  for  the  fresh  root  has  usually  been 
$10  per  ton.  The  cost  of  growing,  including  rent,  ranges 
from  $50  to  $80  per  acre.  The  soil^on  Roberts  island  is  a 


THE  ENDIVE.  257 

mixture  of  sediment  and  peat — deep,  rich,  light  and  moist ; 
most  admirably  adapted  to  the  root. 

Harvesting  and  Curing. — From  seed  sown  in  February, 
harvesting  continues  from  the  middle  of  August  to  the 
middle  of  October.  Early  gathering  is  necessary,  as  sun- 
dried  chicory  is  better  than  that  cured  by  artificial  heat. 
When  ready  for  gathering  a  plow  is  run  along  each  side 
of  the  plants  with  subsoil  cutter  and  lifter  attached,  which 
loosens  the  roots  so  that  they  can  be  easily  lifted  from  the 
soil  by  the  hand  clean  and  ready  for  the  cutting  machine. 
This  operation  is  like  the  gathering  of  sugar  beets,  and 
the  topping  or  removal  of  the  leaves  is  the  same. 

When  they  reach  the  factory  the  roots  are  placed  in  the 
machine,  which  cuts  them  into  cubic  blocks  three-fourths 
of  an  inch  in  size.  The  drying  platform  comes  in  use  next, 
and  when  the  chicory  has  been  dried  as  far  as  sun  power 
will  dry  it,  it  is  placed  in  the  roasters,  each  holding  two 
barrels,  where  it  is  roasted  as  coffee  is  before  being  ground. 
From  the  roasters  it  goes  to  the  mill,  where  it  is  ground 
put  in  barrels,  and  thus  becomes  the  chicory  of  commerce. 

The  preparation  of  chicory  for  home  use  is  a  very  simple 
operation  and  can  be  done  with  ordinary  kitchen  appli- 
ances. 

The  variety  grown  is  the  " large-rooted  Magdeburg," 
with  leaves  entire  and  upright. 

THE  ENDIVE. 

Though  botanically  a  chicory,  the  endive  in  its  uses  is 
closely  allied  with  lettuce  and  is  chiefly  useful  during  the 
frosty  period  of  the  year,  for  then  its  flavor  is  likely  to 
be  better  than  that  of  lettuce,  because  it  is  able  to  grow 
more  rapidly  with  low  temperatures.  As,  however,  there 
is  so  much  of  California  which  does  favor  rapid  winter 
growth  of  lettuce  the  endive  is  correspondingly  restricted. 
Still  in  localities  with  heavy  rainfall  and  long  stretches  of 
chilly  winter  weather,  the  endive  will  give  good  supplies 
of  salad  material  and  should  be  better  known.  It  is  also 
valuable  as  a  boiled  vegetable  possessing  a  distinctive 


258  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES. 

flavor  which  is  generally  acceptable  and  used  in  this  lat- 
ter form  it  is  quite  a  valuable  addition  to  such  plants  as 
Swiss  Chard  and  Spinach. 

As  a  salad  plant  the  value  of  endive  depends  largely 
upon  its  being  properly  grown  and  thoroughly  well 
blanched.  Blanching  induces  delicacy  and  tenderness  of 
eating  and  can  probably  be  best  effected  by  bunching  up 
the  leaves  and  tying  with  string  or  raffia,  or  by  spreading 
hay  or  straw  thickly  over  the  plants.  Some  care  must  be 
given  to  the  proper  blanching  of  the  plants,  for  unless  this 
is  successfully  accomplished  endive  is  not  likely  to  be 
appreciated. 

The  plant  is  easy  of  culture,  the  methods  being  essenti- 
ally those  described  for  lettuce,  but  chiefly  sown  in  sum- 
mer and  early  fall  for  use  in  the  rainy  season.  The  follow- 
ing varieties  most  largely  used  in  California : 

Green  curled:  very  curly,  midrib  whitish,  leaves  finely 
divided. 

White  curled:  yellowish  green,  very  curly  and  attrac- 
tive looking. 

Escarole  or  Batavian:  leaves  wider  and  thicker,  dull 
green,  a  good  variety  for  boiling. 

Staghorn :  strong-growing,  leaves  curly  but  less  finely 
divided  and  thicker,  also  good  for  cooking. 


CHAPTER  XX. 
CORN. 

Sweet  Corn. — Zea  mays. 

French,  mais  sucre;  German,  mais;  Dutch,  Turksche 
tarwe;  Italian,  grano  turco;  Spanish,  maiz;  Portuguese, 
milho. 

California  cannot  claim  to  be  a  large  producer  of  corn, 
though  it  does  grow  large  corn  and  has  a  long  green  corn 
season.  Of  the  summer  grains  corn  is  produced  in  least 
amount,  because  the  others  can  make  winter  growth  and 
corn  cannot,  and  they  mature  at  about  the  time  when  corn 
can  be  safely  planted.  They  pass  the  dry  season  in  the 
sack  while  corn  has  to  endure  it  in  the  field  and  does  not 
take  kindly  to  it.  Dry  heat  puts  it  in  distress  which  irri- 
gation does  not  wholly  relieve.  In  the  place  of  corn  on  the 
interior  plains  improved  varieties  of  sorghum  are  now 
largely  grown  both  for  the  grain  and  the  forage. 

But  while  this  is  true  there  are  regions  in  which  mag- 
nificent corn  is  grown.  These  are  usually  moist  lowlands 
from  the  valleys  north  of  the  bay  of  San  Francisco  south- 
ward to  San  Diego;  near  enough  to  the  coast  to  catch 
something  of  atmospheric  humidity  from  the  ocean,  and 
still  with  summer  heat  enough  to  suit  this  warmth-loving 
plant.  There  are  also  great  corn  lands  in  the  river  bot- 
toms of  the  interior  valley,  where  the  drought  is  less  than 
on  the  plains,  and  in  the  low  moist  lands  of  the  foot-hill 
and  mountain  valleys  as  well.  In  all  these  places  and 
where  similar  conditions  are  produced  by  irrigation,  corn 
reaches  great  dimensions. 

Of  course,  corn  as  a  vegetable  is  somewhat  different 
from  corn  as  a  grain.  So  also  is  corn  as  a  green  forage 
plant.  For  "roasting  ears"  and  for  green  forage,  ripen- 


260  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES. 

ing  conditions  are  not  essential,  and  for  these  purposes  the 
plant  can  be  carried  nearer  to  the  coast  than  for  a  grain 
crop,  and  in  the  warmer  regions  it  can  be  planted  late  for 
a  longer  succession  than  for  grain  if  moisture  enough  is 
provided.  It  is  not  uncommon,  therefore,  in  the  interior 
to  have  good  roasting  ears  at  Thanksgiving  or  even  in  De- 
cember at  elevations  or  in  other  places  where  early  frosts 
are  seldom  known.  Thus  corn  as  a  vegetable  in  California 
is  a  greater  affair  than  corn  as  a  grain.  It  would  have 
even  a  greater  value  as  a  garden  plant  were  it  not  for  the 
ravages  of  the  ear-worm,  which  so  far  defies  insecticides 
and  which  takes  its  full  share  of  the  crop  at  the  times 
when  its  appetite  is  good.  It  is  usually  the  early  corn 
which  suffers  most  from  this  pest. 

Soil. — The  requirements  of  Indian  corn  are  so  widely 
known  that  it  will  hardly  be  necessary  to  enter  minutely 
into  them.  The  soil  should  be  preferably  a  rich,  sandy 
loam,  sufficiently  retentive  of  moisture  and  yet  easy  to 
keep  in  fine  tilth.  Satisfactory  results  can,  however,  be 
secured  on  quite  a  variety  of  soils  if  warmth  and  moisture 
can  be  assured.  In  the  heavier  soils  there  is  much  advant- 
age in  plowing  under  the  disintegrated  roots  of  previous 
growths  of  weeds  or  crop-plants  and  the  best  corn  often 
comes  here  as  elsewhere  on  newly-broken  land. 

Preparation  for  Corn. — As  the  corn  plants  resent  drouth 
so  strenuously  it  is  very  important  that  preparation  of 
the  land  should  include  efforts  for  thorough  moistening 
of  the  land  by  rainfall  or  irrigation,  followed  by  surface 
treatment  to  prevent  evaporation.  All  that  has  been 
urged  in  these  directions  in  the  chapter  on  cultivation  has 
especial  pertinence  in  preparation  for  the  corn  crop.  It 
is  vain  to  expect  to  succeed  by  shallow  cultivation  except 
where  the  land  is  natirually  sub-irrigated,  and  even  on 
such  land  there  must  be  deep  working  enough  to  place  the 
seed  below  the  dry  surface  layer.  Slack  preparation  on 
lands  which  naturally  dry  out  in  the  summer  assures 
failure  and  disappointment. 

Planting. — Corn  is  a  very  tender  plant  and  must  be 


METHODS  OF  GROWING  CORN. 


261 


planted  not  only  after  frosts  are  over,  but  after  the  soil  has 
become  well  warmed  and  warmth  may  be  expected  to  con- 
tinue. The  date  of  planting  must  be  determined  by  the 


local  attainment  of  these  conditions.  From  this  time  on- 
ward through  the  summer,  planting  may  be  done  if 
moisture  enough  can  be  retained  in  the  soil.  For  this 


262  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES. 

reason,  on  moist  or  irrigated  land,  corn  is  planted  after 
winter-growing  crops  are  cleared  away,  and  large  yields 
are  secured.  Near  the  coast  where  the  corn  plant  is  con- 
stantly refreshed  by  ocean  moisture  in  the  air,  it  will 
make  good  green  growth  with  what  remains  from  winter 
rainfall  on  land  from  which  a  crop  of  beets  or  carrots, 
sown  the  previous  season,  has  been  cleared  away.  In  such 
rotation  the  land  should  be  plowed  as  early  as  possible 
after  the  roots  have  been  taken  off,  to  keep  down  the 
growth  of  grass  and  weeds  and  retain  moisture  till  the 
proper  time  for  planting  corn,  which  will  depend  a  good 
deal  on  the  wetness  or  dryness  of  the  season.  The  earli- 
ness  of  the  first  planting  will  depend  mainly  on  the  fitness 
of  the  land  and  the  situation,  but  for  early  use,  some  early 
variety  of  sweet  corn  should  be  planted  as  soon  as  circum- 
stances are  favorable  for  doing  so,  to  be  followed  by  sev- 
eral successive  planting,  say,  through  May  and  June,  and 
even  into  July. 

Growers  differ  as  to  the  advantages  of  growing  in  hills 
or  in  rows.  Hills  give  opportunity  to  cultivate  in  two 
directions  with  the  horse.  Rows  have  a  tendency  to  check 
the  draft  of  dry  winds  when  the  rows  run  at  right  angles 
to  their  anticipated  direction.  The  general  course  of  dry, 
hot  summer  winds  is  from  north  to  south  (except  where 
given  a  different  trend  by  local  topography),  consequently 
east  and  west  rows  oppose  them  ancl  in  some  measure 
shade  the  soil  and  the  plant  better  from  sun  heat.  But 
when  prevailing  practice  shows  that  the  ground  in  the  row 
usually  goes  untouched  by  tools  and  consequently  becomes 
hard  and  dry,  it  is  quite  a  question  whether  the  separa- 
tion of  the  plants  into  hills  for  free  cultivation  both  ways 
is  not  on  the  whole  much  the  better  method.  But  choice 
may  be  governed  by  local  conditions. 

Distance  in  corn  planting  depends  upon  the  habit  of 
growth  of  the  variety.  Small  early  kinds  may  be  planted 
in  hills  three  feet  apart  each  way  or  in  rows  three  feet 
apart,  but  larger  kinds  may  need  wider  spacing,  even  up 
to  five  feet.  Seed  should  always  be  planted  in  excess; 


GARDEN  CORN.  263 

five  or  six  kernels  in  the  hill,  to  be  thinned  to  the  three 
or  four  strongest  plants,  four  inches  apart  in  the  row,  to 
be  thinned  to  eight  or  ten  inches,  according  to  size  and 
variety. 

For  laying  off  hills  in  straight  lines  after  plowing  and 
harrowing,  a  marker  should  be  used  both  ways  and  the 
corn  planted  at  the  intersections  of  the  lines  either  with 
the  hoe  or  the  hand  corn  planter.  For  planting  in  rows 
the  drill  attachment  or  hand  dropping  in  the  furrow  is 
used,  followed  by  the  harrow. 

Depth  of  planting  depends  upon  the  soil  and  the  situa- 
tion for  the  reasons  given  in  the  chapter  on  propagation. 
On  very  light  soils  in  a  dry  region  very  deep  covering  is 
admissible  because  the  few  inches  at  the  surface  count  for 
nothing,  but  on  heavier  soils  in  good  moisture,  and  espe- 
cially early  in  the  season,  shallow  covering  is  preferable. 

For  succession  there  should  be  planting  done  in  the 
garden  every  two  weeks  during  the  local  season. 

Cultivation. — If  deep  working  of  the  soil  is  the  founda- 
tion of  a  corn  crop,  as  stated,  frequent  summer  cultivation 
is  the  building  itself.  If  the  ground  is  well  laid  off,  the 
cultivator  can  be  used  to  advantage  even  before  the  corn 
shows  up  to  destroy  weeds  and  loosen  the  surface.  After- 
ward the  cultivator  should  be  run  at  very  short  intervals, 
for  the  hot  dry  season  is  always  right  at  the  heels  of  the 
corn  planter  and  should  never  be  allowed  to  catch  up 
with  it.  Some  of  the  finest  corn  we  ever  saw  was  grown 
in  Orange  county  in  this  way :  The  land  was  plowed  four 
times,  irrigated  twice,  hoed  twice,  and  cultivated  and 
worked  in  a  most  thorough  manner.  In  the  whole  process 
of  raising  the  corn  the  grower  went  over  the  land  no  less 
than  sixteen  times.  It  is  hardly  to  be  expected  that  such 
diligence  will  be  general*  but  it  has  to  be  recognized  as 
the  price  of  the  best  results. 

Garden  Corn. — Every  one  wants  early  corn,  and  the 
early  varieties  are  about  the  only  kinds  that  can  be  grown 
on  some  uplands  without  irrigation.  They  are  small  in 
growth,  rapid  in  ear  and  best  wherever  the  season  is 


264  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES. 

shortened  either  by  lack  of  moisture  or  heat.  Some  later 
varieties  are  sweeter,  however,  and  larger  in  the  ear,  and 
should  be  grown  wherever  possible. 

Adam's  Early:  hardy  and  very  early,  but  not  a  "sweet 
corn." 

Early  Cory:  very  early,  good-sized  ear,  small  cob  well 
filled. 

Crosby's  Early  Sugar:  very  early,  short  ear,  sweet  and 
productive. 

Early  Minnesota:  very  early,  good  ear,  white  cob,  ex- 
cellent quality. 

Early  Mammoth:  medium  early,  largest  ears  of  the 
early  verieties,  cob  white,  large  and  well  filled,  productive 
and  of  good  flavor.  The  kind  chiefly  grown  in  California. 

Perry's  Hybrid:  another  early  variety,  ears  large  and 
full,  grain  white,  cob  red,  plant  rather  tall. 

Black  Mexican:  ears  rather  short,  cook  white,  very 
sweet,  ripe  kernel  black. 

Country  Gentleman:  large  ears,  very  sweet,  tall,  very 
productive. 

Stowell's  Evergreen:  a  standard  late  variety,  com- 
mended by  all,  large  ears,  deep  grain,  tender  and  sweet,  a 
strong  grower  and  productive. 

Sweet  corn  is  constantly  increasing  in  popularity  over 
common  field  corn  both  for  green  and  cured  forage  for 
cows.  Late  Mammonth  and  Stowell's  Every  green  are 
largely  used  for  this  purpose.  In  farm  garden  practice 
more  attention  should  usually  be  paid  to  the  forage  value 
of  the  stalk.  If  cut  and  cured  as  each  stalk  is  robbed  of 
its  ears,  it  is  more  nutritious  than  if  allowed  to  bleach  i? 
the  sun  until  the  whole  field  is  cleaned  up. 

Field  and  Ensilage  Corn. — During  the  last  decade  siloef 
have  multiplied  in  various  parts  of  the  State  and  a  much 
greater  acreage  of  field  corn  has  been  grown  than  for- 
merly. It  is  chiefly  grown  in  rows  and  somewhat  less 
carefully  than  corn  for  grain,  because  the  plant  is  not  re- 
quired to  meet  the  strenuous  requirements  of  grain  ripen- 
ing. Still  the  better  the  growing  the  better  the  crop.  A 


FIELD  AND  ENSILAGE  CORN.  265 

hardy,  vigorous,  tall  growth  is  important  for  silo  filling. 
Varieties  chiefly  grown  are  the  Learning,  which  well  meets 
these  points  and  is  the  most  popular  of  the  yellow  varie- 
ties in  California,  and  Sanford  White  Flint,  which  holds 
about  the  same  place  among  white  sorts.  The  Red  Cob 
Ensilage  is  a  strong  growing,  short  jointed  and  leafy 
variety  especially  selected  for  silo  purposes. 


CHAPTER  XXI 
THE  CUCUMBER. 

Cucumber. — Cucumis  sativus. 

French,  concombre ;  German,  gurke ;  Dutch,  komkom- 
mer;  Danish,  agurken;  Italian,  cetriolo;  Spanish,  cohom- 
bro ;  Portuguese,  pepino. 

The  cucumber  is  rather  an  exacting  plant  and  seldom 
yields  anything  but  disappointment  to  the  grower  who 
does  not  give  it  the  most  watchful  care  and  generous  sup- 
plies of  food  and  drink.  It  is  very  sensitive  to  frosts,  nor 
does  it  thrive  in  low  temperatures  even  if  free  from  frost. 
It  rejoices  in  heat,  but  it  abhors  drouth.  It  is  not  con- 
tent, like  some  members  of  its  botanical  family,  to  thrive 
in  dry  heat  if  it  can  find  moisture  below;  the  heat  re- 
flected from  a  dry  surface  and  interior  sunshine  beaming 
through  dry  air  brings  distress  to  its  foliage.  For  these 
reasons  it  usually  resents  location  on  interior  plains  un- 
less it  can  have  abundant  moisture  and  some  protection 
from  heat — such  at  least  as  locally  may  come  from  modi- 
fying the  air  immediately  around  it,  by  evaporation  from 
water  standing  near.  Modified  interior  conditions  such  as 
are  found  on  river-side  land  or  moist  lowlands  often  yield 
fine  growth  and  productiveness,  but  even  there  it  is  often 
necessary  to  keep  the  moisture  close  to  the  plant  by  irri- 
gation. In  coast  valleys  where  heat  and  moisture  are  well 
balanced  and  on  soil  rich  and  moist  by  cultivation  the 
plant  may  be  productive  enough  without  irrigation, 
but  as  a  rule  even  in  parts  of  coast  valleys  where  the  heat 
runs  high,  as  ocean  influences  are  reduced,  not  only  is 
occasional  irrigation  needed  but  constant  supplies  are  the 
price  of  thrift  in  the  plant.  For  these  reasons  the  placing 
of  cucumbers  along  the  main  ditches  where  water  fre- 


CUCUMBER   CONDITIONS.  267 

quently  or  always  flows,  or  the  use  of  a  raised  bed  with 
water  flowing  on  the  ridge,  is  the  surest  way  to  make  the 
plants  satisfactory  and  prolific  where  the  heat  runs  high. 
And  3^et,  as  stated,  there  are  considerable  areas  in  differ- 
ent parts  of  the  State  where  conditions  are  so  favorable 
that  field  growth  of  cucumbers  for  the  market  and  for 
the  pickle  factories,  is  feasible  without  irrigation.  There 
are  moist  lowlands,  rich  and  warm,  where  the  foliage  does 
not  show  burnt  edges  and  where  the  free  growth  of  vine 
is  marvelous  to  one  who  has  tried  to  push  the  plant  in 
places  too  trying  for  it.  It  is  also  possible  in  frostless 
regions  where  heat  comes  early  in  the  spring,  to  find  con- 
ditions for  an  early  crop  which  is  disposed  of  before  try- 
ing summer  conditions  come  on.  Early  spring  conditions 
in  California  are  widely  favorable  to  the  plant  did  not 
the  frost  factor  intrude.  Autumn  growing  is  also  practi- 
cable where  moisture  is  adequate,  for  then  heat  and 
drouth  are  modified.  Cucumbers  from  the  open  ground  at 
Thanksgiving  or  later  are  common  in  some  regions. 

Soil. — Cucumbers  require  a  rich  soil,  and  it  must  be  re- 
tentive of  moisture,  for  the  reasons  stated,  unless  water 
is  to  be  constantly  supplied.  A  rather  light  soil  which 
warms  up  early  is  preferable,  but  heavy  soil  can  be 
readily  adapted  to  cucumbers  on  a  small  scale  by  free  use 
of  well-rotted  manure  thoroughly  mixed.  A  free  loam, 
not  disposed  to  bake,  is  the  best  soil. 

Preparation  of  Soil. — Land  from  which  a  well  cultivated 
root  crop  has  been  removed  for  winter  use  can  be  easily 
put  into  condition  for  cucumbers  by  good  deep  spring 
plowing  and  harrowing,  to  retain  moisture.  New  land 
should  receive  such  fall  and  winter  treatment  as  has  been 
prescribed  for  bean  planting,  so  as  to  secure  in  spring  as 
good  tilth  and  moisture  retention  as  possible. 

Planting  and  Cultivation. — Cucumbers  are  usually 
grown  in  hills,  from  four  to  six  feet  apart  each  way. 
Planting  should  not  be  done  until  the  soil  becomes  warm 
and  frost  injury  is  over ;  then  planting  five  or  six  seeds  in 
a  hill,  covering  as  lightly  as  can  be  trusted  to  retain 


268  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES. 

moisture  until  the  plants  take  hold.  As  soon  as  the  plants 
appear,  cultivation  must  begin,  using  the  horse  between 
the  rows  and  the  hoe  around  the  plants.  The  surface 
must  be  kept  mellow  and  free  from  weeds.  If  the  plants 
all  grow,  select  the  best  two  or  three  and  pull  out  the 
others.  Continue  cultivation  as  long  as  it  is  possible  to 
stir  the  soil  without  injuring  the  vines. 

Gathering. — Frequent  gathering  of  the  cucumbers  as 
they  reach  satisfactory  size  is  essential  to  the  long  bear- 
ing of  the  vines.  None  should  be  allowed  to  ripen  except 
on  vines  planted  for  that  purpose,  and  all  imperfect  speci- 
mens should  be  taken  off  as  soon  as  seen. 

Cucumbers  Under  Cover. — Very  little  is  done  in  Cali- 
fornia in  house-growing  of  cucumbers,  although  this  in- 
terest is  increasing.  A  little  forcing  is  done  by  market 
gardeners,  but  the  business  is  risky  because  of  the  slight 
demand  and  the  fact  that  open-air  cucumbers  from  early 
regions  come  so  soon  after  the  late  crop  from  frostless 
places  is  disposed  of.  It  is  quite  common  to  start  plants 
under  cover,  and  plant  out  early  even  at  risk  of  replant- 
ing. Growers  usually  keep  a  stock  of  plants  ready  for  this 
purpose. 

Garden  Culture  of  Cucumbers. — In  the  garden  very 
elaborate  arrangements  may  be  made  to  secure  early 
cucumbers.  Growing  the  plants  on  inverted  sod  and 
planting  out  as  a  whole  hill,  as  described  in  the  chapter 
on  propagation,  is  satisfactory.  Planting  on  the  sides  of 
ditches  has  already  been  mentioned.  Growing  hills  or 
single  plants  in  tin  cans  or  other  receptacles  and  pro- 
tecting them  until  safe  to  plant  out  is  also  an  easy  way  to 
get  an  earlier  crop  than  otherwise.  Some  use  is  made 
of  deep  holes  partly  filled  with  tramped  horse  manure 
and  then  with  earth,  and  growing  plants  on  top  of  the  hill 
thus  formed,  protected  with  glass  or  cloth.  With  such 
arrangements  double  care  must  be  had  to  supply  enough 
water.  The  south  side  of  a  fence  or  building  is  a  good 
place  for  fast  spring  growth.  In  short,  moderate  heat, 
copious  watering  and  rich  soil  are  the  secrets  of  good 


VARIETIES  OP  CUCUMBERS.  269 

cucumbers,  and  there  is  much  chance  for  ingenuity  in 
securing  these  conditions. 

For  Pickling. — Cucumbers  for  pickling  are  largely 
grown  in  the  early  autumn  for  midsummer  planting.  As 
stated  before,  where  irrigation  can  be  had,  autumn  tem- 
peratures are  often  very  favorable  for  the  plant. 

Varieties. — Although  our  fairs  and  local  produce  ex- 
hibits may  be  counted  upon  to  bring  to  view  almost  every 
shape  and  length  of  cucumber  which  amateurs  delight  in, 
very  few  kinds  constitute  the  crop  grown  for  use  and  sale. 

Arlington  White  Spine :  good  size,  straight  and  sym- 
metrical, holds  green  color  well,  very  productive  and 
early ;  used  both  for  market  and  pickling. 

Long  White  Spine :  a  standard  mid-season  variety,  large, 
dark  green,  tender,  white  crisp  flesh. 

Klondike:  similar  to  Long  White  Spine,  specially  fa- 
vored by  southern  California  market  growers. 

Long  Green :  an  old  standard  late  variety ;  dark  green ; 
firm  and  crisp ;  good  form ;  a  favorite  for  pickling. 

Green  Prolific  or  Boston  Pickling :  early  and  productive ; 
small  size ;  crisp  and  tender ;  popular  for  pickling. 

Pera:  long,  smooth  skin,  good  green  color,  and  flesh 
white  and  crisp ;  flavor  excellent ;  seed  cavity  small ;  rather 
late. 

Cumberland:  hardy,  vigorous  and  prolific;  very  de- 
sirable for  pickling  because  very  good  in  all  sizes. 

Chicago  Pickling:  medium  long,  dark  green,  rounded 
ends ;  a  popular  pickling  variety. 

Cool  and  Crisp ;  especially  favored  as  a  garden  variety ; 
green  but  ripening  white. 


CHAPTER  XXII. 
EGG  PLANT.  % 

Egg  Plant. — Solanum  melongena. 

French,  aubergine ;  German,  eierpflanze ;  Flemish,  eier- 
plant;  Italian,  petonciano;  Spanish,  berengena;  Portu- 
guese, bringela. 

Egg  plant  is  one  of  the  great  vegetables  in  California ; 
it  is  great  in  the  size  and  quality,  which  are  easily  at- 
tained, and  great  in  its  popularity.  It  is  doubtful  whether 
any  part  of  the  world  makes  such  free  use  of  the  plant, 
and  enjoys  it  through  so  long  a  season.  Although  the 
plant  is  properly  classed  as  tender,  and  is  somewhat  ex- 
acting in  the  starting  of  the  seed  and  in  transplanting,  it 
grows  riotously  when  well  established  in  a  favorable  loca- 
tion and  soil,  fruits  freely  and  continuously,  and  it  is  not 
unusual  to  find  at  California  fairs  specimens  of  six  pounds 
weight,  while  fruit  of  two  and  three  pounds  constitute 
common  stock  with  the  vegetable  peddlers. 

Location  and  Soil. — Egg  plant  can  be  successfully  grown 
almost  everywhere  in  California,  but  there  will  naturally 
be  much  variation  in  its  season,  according  to  the  local 
occurrence  of  the  frost-free  period.  In  the  frostless  belts, 
described  in  previous  chapters,  it  is  feasible  to  start  the 
plants  in  the  autumn  and  secure  a  very  early  crop;  in 
most  places,  however,  the  plants  can  best  be  grown  with 
bottom  heat  in  the  winter,  and  fruiting  secured  all 
through  the  summer  and  fall,  if  the  nights  are  rather 
warm  and  the  heat  not  too  fitful. 

As  the  plant  will  endure  very  high  heat  if  well  supplied 
with  moisture,  and  as  it  resists  drought,  when  well  estab- 
lished, it  is  well  adapted  to  interior  conditions.  It  suc- 
ceeds admirably  in  the  interior  bottom  lands  if  water  is 


GROWING  EGG  PLANTS.  271 

not  excessive,  and  is  perfectly  at  home  as  well  in  the  coast 
regions,  both  valley  and  uplands,  if  adequately  watered. 
It  is  not  very  exacting  in  soil  character,  and  can  be  safely 
undertaken  on  any  good  garden  land  if  well  cultivated 
and  manured,  for  the  plant  is  a  strong  feeder  and  should 
grow  fast  and  regularly. 

Growing  the  Plants. — Egg  plants  can  be  easily  grown 
from  seed  by  the  use  of  seed  boxes,  with  bottom  heat  or 
in  an  ordinary  hot-bed,  all  of  which  are  described  in  the 
chapter  on  propagation.  The  seed  should  be  covered 
about  half  an  inch.  Extra  regard  must  be  had  for  main- 
taining a  uniform  and  rather  high  temperature  for  the 
starting  and  early  growth  of  the  seedlings,  as  the  seed 
germinates  slowly  and  needs  encouraging  conditions. 
Transplanting  the  seedlings  twice  before  planting  out 
renders  them  more  stocky.  Planting  out  should  only  be 
done  when  the  soil  is  warm  and  in  good  condition,  for  it  is 
necessary  that  the  seedlings  should  quickly  take  hold  and 
proceed  vigorously  afterwards.  Plants  may  be  grown 
from  two  and  a  half  to  three  feet  apart  each  way. 

After  Treatment. — The  best  of  cultivation  must  be  given 
to  prevent  any  check  or  setback  in  the  growth  of  the 
plants.  Irrigation  must  be  used  as  necessary  to  advance 
this  result.  It  is  desirable  that  the  plant  should  be  pre- 
vented from  setting  too  many  fruits  and  pinching  off  the 
terminals  to  prevent  too  great  running  out  is  often  ad- 
visable. 

Varieties. — The  New  York  Improved  Purple  is  the  fa- 
vorite variety  and  is  chiefly  grown.  Black  Beauty,  a  deep 
purple,  a  little  earlier  but  usually  not  quite  so  large  is  also 
popular.  Other  sorts,  though  much  less  popular,  are  the 
Early  Long  Purple  and  the  Black  Pekin.  The  White  Pearl 
is  the  best  of  the  whites  which  are,  however,  in  less  de- 
mand. The  Tree  Egg  Plant  is  hardy,  upright  and  escapes 
some  ills  of  lower  growing  varieties  in  bad  weather. 


CHAPTER  XXIII. 
LETTUCE. 

Cabbage  Lettuce. — Lactuca  capitata. 

French,  laitues  pommees;  German,  kopfsalat;  Dutch, 
kropsalad;  Italian,  lattuga  a  cappucio;  Spanish,  lechuga 
acogollada ;  Portuguese,  alface  repolhada. 

Cos  Lettuce. — Idem. 

French,  laitues  romaines;  German,  bind-salat;  Dutch, 
roomsche  latouw;  Italian,  lattuga  romana;  Spanish,  lech- 
uga romana;  Portuguese,  alface  romana. 

Lettuce  is  emphatically  a  satisfactory  garden  plant  in 
California.  It  is  unaffected  by  the  ordinary  winter  tem- 
peratures of  our  valleys  and  foothills,  and  it  endures  the 
heat,  if  moisture  is  adequate,  with  only  slight  protection 
from  the  burning  sun.  It  withers  and  dies  or  it  becomes 
tough  and  worthless,  in  the  face  of  drought,  it  is  true,  but 
any  gardener  who  does  not  arrange  better  for  its  growth 
does  not  deserve  to  enjoy  its  refreshing  crispness.  Who- 
ever will  provide  the  simplest  arrangement  to  relieve  its 
roots  from  cold,  standing  water  in  winter,  or  who  will  keep 
its  roots  moist  and  afford  slight  shade  for  its  tender  leaves 
from  the  interior  heat  in  summer,  need  never  miss  a  day 
of  lettuce-gathering.  And  even  these  slight  aids  from  the 
grower  are  not  needed  everywhere.  In  regions  naturally 
moderate,  both  in  moisture  and  heat,  and  with  a  few  weeks 
of  watering  in  midsummer,  succession  of  lettuce  is  un- 
broken throughout  the  year  on  any  good  garden  soil  which 
is  well  cultivated.  There  is  little  lettuce  forcing  in  Cali- 
fornia, and,  of  course,  with  such  natural  conditions,  there 
is  small  need  of  any,  and  yet  during  recent  years,  owing 
to  the  constant  demand  for  lettuce  all  the  year,  because  of 
the  increased  importance  of  salads  in  the  menu,  there  has 


LETTUCE  ALL  THE  YEAR.  273 

arisen  new  opportunity  for  forcing  and  shipment  of  let- 
tuce considerable  distances  by  rail  has  advanced  notably 
during  the  last  decade.  In  central  California  cities  dur- 
ing the  season  of  heaviest  rains  it  is  hard  to  get  bright, 
clean  lettuces  from  local  market  gardens  and  much  is 
brought  from  the  Los  Angeles  district  where  there  is  less 
rain  and  more  winter  sunshine.  It  is  to  be  expected  that 
as  population  increases  there  will  be  a  better  opportunity 
for  local  forcing  enterprises  which  can  be  conducted  with 
slight  structures  and  a  minimum  of  artificial  heat. 

Culture. — Lettuce  can  be  sown  on  moist  ground  the  year 
round.  It  is  exceedingly  rapid  in  development,  and  can  be 
grown  as  a  catch  crop  among  slower  growing  vegetables 
at  all  times  of  the  year.  It  starts  readily  from  the  seed, 
and  the  most  common  practice  is  to  sow  a  thin  drill  of  it 
here  or  there,  as  interspace  is  to  be  for  a  short  time  un- 
occupied, thinning  the  plants  at  the  first  weeding  and  al- 
lowing them  to  head  in  the  thinned  row.  This  is  the 
simplest  practice,  and  will  be  most  generally  followed  in 
the  farm  garden.  And  yet  it  is  so  easy  to  imitate  the  mar- 
ket gardeners  and  put  in  transplanted  lettuces  here  and 
there,  wherever  an  unoccupied  corner  appears,  that  this 
practice  must  be  urged  even  for  the  simplest  gardening — 
provided  that  the  plants  are  not  tucked  in  in  such  a  way 
that  hand-work  is  required  where  the  horse  should  do  it. 

Wherever  a  winter  or  early  spring  vegetable  is  cleared 
away  a  due  share  of  lettuce  should  go  in.  Wherever  a 
summer  vegetable  yields  the  ground,  the  soil  should  be 
well  soaked  and  cultivated  and  the  lettuce  should  not  be 
overlooked.  As  soon  as  the  fall  rains  sufficiently  wet  the 
ground,  lettuce  should  be  among  the  first  sowings.  And 
before  the  winter  comes  on,  with  its  heavy  rains,  a  warm 
ridge  or  raised  bed  should  have  its  lettuce  covering  under- 
way so  that  midwinter  shall  not  lack  its  supply  of  salad. 
And  in  February,  as  the  ground  is  again  suited  for  flat 
culture,  new  sowings  of  lettuce  should  be  among  the  first 
things  done.  Thus  it  is  seen  that  lettuce  is  to  be  sown  all 
the  year  and  plucked  all  the  year  in  California. 


274  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES. 

It  is  not  necessary,  perhaps,  to  sow  lettuce  so  often  if 
seed  beds  are  prepared  so  that  they  will  readily  drain, 
away  winter  water  and  have  slight  protection  from  cold 
winds  in  the  winter  and  burning  sun  in  summer.  From 
these  beds  plants  can  be  taken  at  different  times  as  land 
is  available  for  planting  out,  just  as  cabbages  are  trans- 
planted, and  even  though  the  plants  have  attained  con- 
siderable  size  in  the  seed-bed,  the  long  roots  can  be  shork 
ened  a  little  and  they  can  still  be  transplanted  to  good 
moist  soil,  and  will  go  on  with  the  heading  all  the  better 
for  the  freer  space.  It  may  be  quicker  to  get  lettuce  with 
the  loose-leaved  plants,  but  the  heads  are  more  delicious, 
and  all  should  learn  to  keep  the  plants  in  good  thrift  un- 
til they  become  full  and  solid  with  their  crisp  and  delici- 
ous contents.  Seed-beds  should  not  have  much  heating 
material  in  this  climate.  It  is  better  for  the  plants  to  grow 
slowly  at  first,  and  after  the  rains  a  raised  bed  with  enough 
fibrous  material  and  well-spent  manure  will  furnish  a  long 
succession  for  transplanting.  But  whether  the  ordinary 
grower  will  undertake  this  work  or  not,  let  him  have  let- 
tuce anyway — even  if  he  will  only  scatter  seed  at  frequent 
intervals  on  moist  ground  and  then  give  the  plants  good 
hoeing.  To  get  crisp,  tender  lettuce  the  plants  must  be 
pushed  along  with  rich  soil  and  good  cultivation  whatever 
method  of  growing  is  pursued. 

In -the  hot  parts  of  the  State,  where  the  summer  tries 
the  plants,  lettuce  should  be  planted  on  the  shady  side  of 
tall  growing  vegetables,  and  then,  with  moisture  enough, 
they  will  do  well.  Lath  screens  or  other  devices  are,  of 
course,  serviceable  if  one  prefers  them.  But  do  not  be 
content  with  a  little  lettuce  in  the  spring  and  go  without 
the  rest  of  the  year.  It  only  requires  a  little  ingenuity 
and  energy  and  water  to  have  crisp,  cooling  salad  all  sum- 
mer, when  it  is  most  delicious  and  wholesome. 

Varieties. — There  is  almost  illimitable  variety  in  lettuce, 
and  inextricable  confusion  in  the  nomenclature  resulting 
from  re-naming  by  seedsmen  and  others.  As  with  other 
plants,  however,  a  few  varieties  constitute  the  bulk  of  the 


UNIVERSITY 

OF 


VARIETIES  OP  LETTUCE.  275 

California  lettuce  product.  It  is  customary  to  arrange 
lettuce  varieties  in  two  groups;  one  has  roundish  heads 
and  includes  the  "cabbage"  varieties;  the  other  has  tall, 
elongated  heads  and  includes  the  "cos"  varieties.  There 
is,  of  course,  much  difference  in  the  density  of  the  heads, 
and  some  are  quite  loose  and  open,  properly  called  "bunch- 
ing," but  the  close-heading  varieties  are  better  and  the 
more  suitable  for  market  handling.  In  California  the  cab- 
bage varieties  vary  largely  preponderate  over  the  cos 
varieties,  and  the  non-heading  "or  "cutting  lettuces,"  or 
curled  varieties,  are  not  widely  grown,  though  they  may 
be  found  useful  in  getting  the  quickest  foliage  from  the 
seed  sowing.  It  should  be  noted  that  compared  with  the 
cabbage  type,  the  cos  lettuce  is  hardier  and  less  suscep- 
tible to  frost;  it  also  shows  more  ability  to  withstand 
drought  and  is  also  less  liable  to  sunburn,  the  last  two 
features  making  it  better  adapted  to  hot  and  dry  locali- 
ties, while  the  first  is  one  which  especially  recommends  its 
use  as  a  late  kind. 

Large  Passion:  medium  sized,  round  head,  fine,  large, 
solid,  and  white,  crisp,  tender,  and  of  fine  flavor;  not  as 
fine  in  appearance  as  some  others,  but  it  stands  handling 
better,  and  is  very  good  for  shipping. 

Royal  Summer :  known  in  the  East  as  California  Cream 
butter,  large,  solid,  round  heads,  light  green  outside, 
creamy  yellow  within;  stands  heat  well,  particularly 
popular  for  autumn  and  winter  use. 

Maximum  or  Immensity :  very  much  larger  than  the  fore- 
going which  it  resembles ;  good  for  fall  and  winter  growth 
and  a  heavy,  durable  shipping  variety. 

Big  Boston:  a  light  green  cabbage  variety  with  light 
brown  tinge  to  the  leaves ;  largely  grown  in  the  south  for 
northern  shipments;  forms  a  fine  head,  endures  tempera- 
ture changes  well. 

May  King :  a  very  early,  quick  heading  variety,  colored 
like  Big  Boston ;  good  for  spring  and  summer  use. 

White  Paris  Cos :  upright  grower,  with  long  head ;  needs 


276  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES. 

tying  up  for  blanching;  tender  and  crisp,  a  favorite  with 
foreign  residents. 

Improved  Hanson:  heads  round,  very  solid  and  large, 
green  outside  and  white  within;  flavor  fine;  stands  heat 
well ;  very  popular  for  house  gardens. 

Prize  Head :  an  early  variety  with  large,  loose  bunch,  re- 
mains tender  and  crisp  through  long  season;  flavor  ex- 
cellent; very  easily  grown. 

Denver  Market:  early,  tight,  conical  head;  light  green, 
leaves  curled  and  crimped;  crisp  and  tender;  very  slow 
to  go  to  seed. 

New  York  Head:  immense  round  head;  outer  leaves 
dark ;  head  white,  crisp,  and  good  flavor ;  popular  in  south- 
ern California. 

Black-seeded  Simpson :  a  non-heading  variety,  leaves  al- 
most white  and  very  large ;  stands  heat  well. 

Of  these  varieties  the  first  two  named  have  been  the 
main  dependence  of  San  Francisco  market  gardeners  for 
years.  The  Hanson  and  Prize  Head  are  more  used  by 
home  gardeners.  New  York  Head  has  become  widely 
popular  as  "Los  Angeles  Lettuce,"  and  is  a  favorite  in 
the  trade. 


CHAPTER  XXIV. 
MELONS, 

The  Cantaloup  or  Muskmelon. — Cucumis  melo, 

French,  melon ;  German,  melone ;  Dutch,  meloeri ;  Italian, 
popone;  Spanish,  melon;  Portuguese,  melao. 

The  Watermelon. — Citrullus  vulgaris. 

French,  melon  d'eau;  German,  wasser-melone ;  Italian, 
cocomero ;  Spanish,  sandia ;  Portuguese,  melamia. 

From  the  manner  in  which  they  are  eaten  melons  should 
be  classed  with  fruits ;  from  the  manner  in  which  they  are 
grown  they  are  more  closely  related  to  vegetables.  Their 
nearest  botanical  relatives,  also,  are  of  the  vegetable  class. 
They  evidently  cannot  be  excluded  from  this  work  be- 
cause of  their  aspiration  to  rank  with  the  fruits. 

California  is  characteristically  great  for  melons;  not 
only  for  their  great  size  and  excellence,  but  for  the  long 
season  during  which  they  are  available  for  table  use. 
Their  delight  in  interior  heat,  their  tolerance  of  drought, 
their  immense  size,  when  both  heat  and  moisture  combine 
for  their  advancement,  constitute  exceptional  adaptations 
for  semi-tropical  climates,  in  which  they  have  been  famous 
from  the  earliest  times.  California  answers  their  needs  to 
the  fullest  degree,  and  they  have  naturally  attained  great 
local  esteem  and  popularity.  Recently  the  California  can- 
taloup has  figured  largely  in  the  overland  trade. 

THE  MUSKMELON. 

In  the  United  States  the  terms  "muskmelon"  and  "can- 
taloup" are  interchangeable,  and  in  California  cantaloup 
is  given  the  preference.  Of  the  many  types  of  cantaloups 
which  have  been  defined  by  students  of  melon  classifica- 
tion a  single  one,  known  as  the  Rocky  Ford,  from  the 
place  of  its  large  commercial  development  in  Colorado, 


278  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES. 

dominates  all  others,  commanding  nearly  all  the  acreage 
and  constituting  almost  exclusively  the  commercial  pro- 
duction except  that  which  is  especially  grown  for  local 
markets. 

The  muskmelon  has  a  very  wide  range  in  California.  It 
has  greater  taste  for  dry  heat  than  its  relative,  the  cucum- 
ber, but  in  this  respect  it  is  no  rival  of  the  watermelon,  for 
it  will  perish  utterly  under  drought  which  the  watermelon 
will  survive.  Where  the  muskmelon  has  both  heat  and 
moisture,  it  grown  riotously,  for  a  weight  of  72  pounds 
has  been  reported  from  Fresno.  But  the  muskmelon  will 
not  brook  frost,  nor  will  it  thrive  with  low  temperatures 
even  if  they  are  considerably  above  freezing.  California 
has,  however,  such  a  long  frost-free  period  and  as  degrees 
of  favoring  heat  arrive  in  different  months  in  different 
parts  of  the  State,  there  is  wide  divergence  in  dates  of 
planting  and  of  ripening  of  the  crop.  The  earliest  canta- 
loup district  is  the  Coachella  and  Imperial  valleys  in  the 
extreme  southeast  corner  of  the  State.  Planting  is  done 
in  February  and  the  crop  shipment  begins  in  May  and 
reaches  the  Eastern  markets  in  advance  of  the  product  of 
Colorado  and  other  interior  States.  In  the  San  Joaquin 
valley  planting  may  be  in  April  and  the  product  follows 
the  Rocky  Ford  shipments  for  the  later  summer  trade  of 
the  Atlantic  cities.  Just  what  can  be  profitably  done  at 
different  dates  in  the  East  is  not  fully  determined,  but  the 
advantage  of  the  very  early  cantaloup  from  California 
seems  unquestioned.  It  is  clear,  however,  that  by  choos- 
ing different  parts  of  the  State  and  different  varieties  of 
cantaloups,  including  the  "winter  melon"  class,  Cali- 
fornia can  furnish  the  fruit  from  May  to  December  in  any 
quantities  the  available  prices  make  profitable. 

Garden  Culture. — The  soil  requirements  of  the  musk- 
melon are  quite  like  those  already  described  for  the  cu- 
cumber. Most  of  the  commercial  crop  is  produced  on 
deep,  rich,  warm  loams,  but  heavier  soils  with  good  cul- 
ture may  be  used.  Some  varieties  seem  to  enjoy  a  heavy 
soil  better  than  others.  Preparation  of  the  soil  is  the  same 


280  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES. 

as  for  cucumbers,  and  the  same  methods  for  starting 
plants  for  planting  out  as  well  as  for  furnishing  warmth 
and  richness  in  the  hill  may  be  used  in  garden  practice.  In 
the  interior,  on  the  naturally  rich  loams,  not  only  is  the 
culture  devoid  of  all  forcing  devices,  but  on  moist  river 
bank  or  bottom  soils  the  early  crop  is  sometimes  grown 
without  irrigation.  For  summer  planting  and  the  con- 
tinuation of  the  muskmelon  supply  late  in  the  fall,  ample 
moisture  is  necessary,  and  a  modification  of  interior  heat 
by  intrusion  of  coast  breezes  is  desirable.  The  late  sum- 
mer product  is  most  easily  grown  in  the  coast  valleys, 
somewhat  protected  from  ocean  winds. 

Field  Culture. — There  are  so  many  ways  of  handling  the 
soil  to  secure  fine  tillage  and  aeration  and  adequate  mois- 
ture without  the  evil  of  surface  flooding  that  it  can  be 
hardly  claimed  that  any  one  routine  is  best.  As  involv- 
ing tillage,  irrigation  by  percolation  and  fertilization, 
which  the  plant  enjoys  under  proper  conditions,  the  fol- 
lowing outline,  condensed  from  the  writings  of  Dr.  R.  H. 
Forbes,  of  the  Arizona  Station,  is  very  suggestive  for  Cali- 
fornia interior  valley  conditions.  The  writer  has  made 
some  additions  from  his  own  observations:  Cantaloups 
are  grown  to  excellent  advantage  on  light  warm  loams 
properly  fertilized  by  the  addition  of  the  organic  matter 
and  nitrogen  in  which  our  desert  soils  are  usually  defici- 
ent. Heavy  soils  may  also  be  used  for  cantaloup  culture, 
but  are  less  easily  prepared  and  tilled  during  the  progress 
of  the  crop.  Old  alfalfa  ground  is  most  excellent  for  can- 
taloup culture,  and  well  rotted  barnyard  manure  is  effec- 
tive. Bermuda  sod  plowed  up  and  exposed  to  the  sun 
without  irrigation  the  preceding  summer  makes  excellent 
cantaloup  ground,  the  intensive  cultivation  necessary  serv- 
ing both  to  benefit  the  crop  and  to  restrain  this  formidable 
weed.  Trash  from  sod-turning  can  be  reduced  by  the  use 
of  a  disk. 

Alkaline  lands  should  be  avoided,  since  soluble  salts  in 
excess,  even  though  insufficient  to  kill  the  plants,  are  com- 


IRRIGATING  CANTALOUPS.  281 

monly  believed  to  be  detrimental  to  the  quality  of  the 
melons. 

The  land  should  be  so  laid  out  that  the  rows  may  be  irri- 
gated without  submerging  the  vines  and  the  fruit.  One 
good  way  to  accomplish  this,  and  also  to  fertilize  the  soil, 
is  as  follows :  The  field  is  first  irrigated,  plowed  and  har- 
rowed to  a  condition  of  fine  tilth.  With  a  12-inch  plow,  at 
intervals  of  six  feet,  double  furrows  are  then  broken  out, 
going  and  returning  along  the  same  lines.  In  the  deep, 
wide  furrows  thus  formed  well  rotted  barnyard  manure  is 
distributed  to  a  depth  of  three  or  four  inches,  then  plowed 
in  and  the  field  again  harrowed  level.  By  then  plowing 
toward  the  middle  of  the  spaces  between  the  fertilized 
furrows,  the  soil  is  finally  left  in  oval  ridges  separated  by 
back  furrows  for  irrigation.  The  rough  furrows  and 
ridges  are  then  finished  with  a  harrow  and  the  newly  pre- 
pared ground  irrigated  to  establish  the  water  line  for 
guidance  in  planting. 

Seed  should  be  most  carefully  selected  with  reference  to 
flavor  and  appearance  of  the  fruit ;  to  good  shipping  char- 
acters, including  small  cavities  and  heavy  netting ;  and  to 
a  tendency  to  produce  melons  of  standard  size.  About 
one  pound  of  seed  is  required  for  an  acre.  Cantaloup  seed 
improves  to  some  extent  with  time,  and  is  stated  by  ex- 
perienced growers  to  give  more  satisfaction  at  two  years 
of  age  than  at  one. 

With  irrigating  furrows  six  feet  apart,  rows  may  be 
planted  one  on  each  side  of  each  furrow.  The  hills  should 
be  ten  feet  apart  in  the  rows,  " breaking  spaces"  between 
rows.  On  this  plan  the  ground  will  be  quite  uniformly 
occupied,  with  a  distance  of  about  six  feet  between  ad- 
jacent hills.  Where  winds  are  strong  and  prevalently  in 
one  direction  it  is  sometimes  desirable  to  lay  off  the  lands 
at  right  angles  to  the  course  of  the  wind  and  plant  all  the 
hills  on  the  windward  side  of  each  strip  so  that  the  vines 
are  trained  by  the  wind  away  from  the  ditch  and  not  half 
of  them  blown  into  it. 

With  a  hoe  each  hill  is  planted  by  making  a  small  fur- 


282 


CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES. 


row  a  foot  long  just  above  the  water  line,  made  by  the  pre- 
ceding irrigation  which  places  the  hill  where  it  will  not 
be  flooded  by  later  irrigation.  About  ten  seeds  are  dropped 


in  this  furrow,  covered  an  inch  deep,  and  the  soil  pressed 
down  lightly  with  the  blade  of  the  hoe.  After  early  plant- 
ings, when  frosts  are  feared,  a  second  set  of  hills  may  be 
planted  alongside  the  first,  ten  days  or  two  weeks  later. 


VARIETIES   OF  CANTALOUPS.  283 

When  danger  from  frost  is  past,  while  the  plants  are  still 
small  they  are  thinned  to  one  or  two  of  the  strongest  to 
each  hill.  Care  must  be  taken  not  to  overcrowd  the  ground 
with  vines,  as  a  high  percentage  of  small  melons  will  fol- 
low. Under  Arizona  conditions  the  six-foot  spacing  of 
hills  recommended  above,  with  not  more  than  two  plants 
in  the  hill,  gives  best  results. 

A  dependable  supply  of  irrigating  water  is  essential  to 
successful  cantaloup  culture  in  regions  of  little  rain.  Early 
in  the  season  when  the  plants  are  small  and  the  irrigating 
supply  is  cold,  water  should  be  applied  sparingly.  But  be- 
tween the  setting  of  the  crop  and  the  ripening  of  the  first 
fruits,  when  both  vines  and  melons  are  developing  rapidly 
and  when  the  weather  is  usually  hot  and  dry,  frequent 
and  copious  irrigation  is  necessary,  for  if  water  is  stinted 
at  this  time  a  large  percentage  of  small  or  pony  melons  is 
likely  to  follow.  During  the  picking  season  water  should 
again  be  sparingly  applied — just  enough  to  prevent  the 
vines  from  wilting.  This  also  gives  quality  and  solidity  to 
the  melons. 

As  long  as  the  vines  will  permit,  the  middles  should 
be  kept  free  of  weeds  by  means  of  a  one-horse  cultivator, 
and  the  furrows  run  through  with  a  small  plow  after  each 
irrigation.  The^oung  plants  should  also  be  hoed  by  hand 
two  or  three  times.  When  the  ground  is  once  well  covered 
with  vines  weeds  will  make  but  little  headway,  even  Ber- 
muda grass  being  effectually  checked  by  the  dense  cover. 

Varieties. — The  wonderful  advancement  of  the  canta- 
loup as  a  commercial  product  during  the  last  decade  has 
quickened  effort  for  new  varieties  and  given  new  incen- 
tive to  sharp  selection  to  secure  characters  likely  to  facili- 
tate long  shipment  or  to  increase  the  demand.  Relatively 
small  size,  symmetrical  form,  thickness  of  flesh  and  reduc- 
tion of  the  seed-cavity,  durability,  flavor  and  color  of 
flesh  are  among  the  improvements  which  have  been  dili- 
gently sought.  Each  year  brings  forward  something  new 
and  worthy  of  trial  to  determine  local  behavior  and  suit- 
ability. Obviously  a  book  which  aims  to  be  useful  for  a 


284  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES. 

number  of  years  after  its  publication  cannot  satisfactorily 
serve  as  a  guide  to  choice  of  varieties  which  are  constantly 
changing.  Annual  catalogues  of  California  seedsmen 
should  be  carefully  consulted  and  every  grower  should 
try  all  promising  novelties  on  a  small  scale. 

Rocky  Ford :  The  variety  upon  which  the  Colorado  can- 
taloup industry  is  established  and  it  sustains  the  same  re- 
lation to  the  commercial  product  of  California ;  developed 
by  selection  from  the  old  "Netted  Gem";  slightly  oval, 
finely  netted,  average  weight  1%  pounds;  flesh  green, 
thick  and  very  sweet.  Continued  selection  is  being  prac- 
ticed upon  this  variety  and  "Netted  Bock"  has  been  fa- 
vored in  this  State  on  the  claim  of  heavy  bearing  and 
greater  average  production  of  standard  melons. 

Burrell's  Gem:  Larger  than  Rocky  Ford;  flesh  reddish 
and  of  different  flavor ;  an  improved  Paul  Rose,  which  it 
has  largely  displaced. 

Hoodoo  :  slightly  flatter  than  Rocky  Ford  but  otherwise 
similar;  flesh  reddish. 

Large  Yellow:  an  old  variety,  large  oblong,  slightly 
ribbed  and  coarsely  netted;  flesh  light,  yellowish  green; 
quality  excellent ;  still  popular  though  very  different  from 
modern  commercial  types. 

California  Large  Nutmeg:  an  old  variety  still  popular 
in  local  markets  and  good  for  shipping ;  large,  rough,  net- 
ted skin ;  flesh  thick,  solid,  dark  green ;  flavor  delicate. 

Montreal  Improved  Green  Nutmeg :  large,  slightly  flat- 
tened at  the  poles,  densely  netted  skin,  flesh  thick  and  of 
good  flavor. 

Early  Hackensack :  large  size,  productive,  excellent 
flavor. 

Large  Hackensack :  large  size,  roundish,  very  prolific, 
thick,  juicy  flesh,  rich  in  flavor. 

Cassaba,  or  Pineapple:  fine,  large,  late  variety,  rich, 
cream-colored  flesh ;  keeps  well  into  the  winter. 

The  small,  early  varieties,  like  Jenny  Lind,  are  not 
largely  grown,  as  the  trade  prefers  the  large  nutmeg  va- 


THE  WATERMELON.  285 

rieties.     The  small  varieties  are,  however,  very  desirable 
for  home  use. 

The  Winter  Melons. — One  of  the  most  interesting  and 
promising  phases  of  melon  growing  in  California  is  the  ad- 
vancement of  the  "winter  melon,"  comprising  several 
types,  of  which  the  first  to  reach  California  was  the  Cas- 
saba  or  pineapple  melon  which  was  introduced  in  two  va- 
rieties :  one  by  the  late  General  Bidwell,  of  Chico,  in  1869, 
and  another  by  the  late  Dr.  J.  D.  B.  Stillman  in  1878.  Of 
these  the  latter  has  secured  the  greater  popularity.  Later 
introductions  and  selections  and  probably  hybridizations 
also,  have  brought  half  a  dozen  quite  distinct  varieties  into 
notice  and  a  considerable  product  has  been  secured  both 
for  local  sale  and  distant  shipment  during  the  late  autumn 
and  early  winter.  Which  varieties  will  survive  cannot  be 
told  and  in  this  line  California  seedsmen 's  catalogues  must 
be  consulted  each  year.  On  irrigated  lands  these  melons 
can  be  sown  in  mid-summer  and  find  ample  autumn  heat 
and  freedom  from  frost  to  reach  perfection.  The  ripe 
fruit  remains  in  good  condition  for  months  without  cold 
storage. 

THE  WATERMELON. 

The  watermelon  is  more  strictly  a  warm  region  plant 
than  the  muskmelon.  It  reaches  great  size  and  sweetness 
in  interior  regions  of  highest  heat,  coming  nearer  to  the 
coast  in  southern  California  than  in  the  upper  part  of  the 
State.  The  heat  is,  however,  high  enough  in  some  of  the 
coast  valleys  and  foothills,  which  are  in  some  part  sepa- 
rated from  the  coast  by  high  ranges,  -to  produce  a  very 
good  watermelon. 

The  gratefulness  of  the  interior  climate  of  California  to 
the  watermelon  is  seen  in  the  way  the  plants  volunteer 
wherever  on  cultivated  land  a  melon  may  have  gone  to 
decay.  In  cultivated  orchard  they  may  almost  be  called 
weeds,  though  sometimes  the  volunteer  crop  is  turned  to 
account.  A  case  is  cited  where  watermelons  were  planted 
between  the  trees  in  a  young  orchard.  After  the  melons 


286  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES. 

were  harvested,  and  before  the  volunteer  crop  appeared 
the  following  year,  the  ground  was  plowed  twice,  har- 
rowed twice,  and  cultivated  four  times  in  the  regular 
course  of  orchard  work.  Notwithstanding  all  this  dis- 
turbance of  the  soil,  the  seeds,  which  remained  in  the 
ground  during  the  warm  rains  of  winter  and  spring,  did 
not  sprout  until  June — considerably  later  than  seed  sown 
that  year,  and  produced  as  good  a  crop  as  the  latter.  Be- 
ing, probably,  deeply  covered  they  awaited  the  penetra- 
tion of  the  warmth,  which  came  first  to  the  seed  sown  near 
the  surface.  The  soil  was  a  light  loam,  naturally  well 
drained,  and  the  seed  abided  its  time  in  good  condition. 

Soils. — Soils  which  best  suit  the  watermelon  are  warm 
alluvial  soils,  and  the  plant  thrives  on  a  lighter,  drier  soil 
than  suits  the  muskmelon.  It  does  well  on  a  light  soil 
with  a  retentive  sub-soil,  which  acts  as  a  reservoir  of  mois- 
ture. In  such  a  case  the  surface  soil  may  be  coarse  or 
even  gravelly.  Good  specimens  have  been  shown  which 
have  been  grown  without  irrigation  on  recent  deposits  of 
mining  detritus;  on  the  other  hand,  good  melons  are 
grown  on  rather  stiff  clay  loam.  On  heavy  land  much  is 
gained  by  plowing  under  a  winter-grown  sod  or  green 
crop,  or  a  covering  of  manure,  which  renders  the  soil  more 
permeable  as  well  as  enriches  it.  The  plant  seems  to  tol- 
erate many  conditions,  but  neither  cold  nor  wet  agrees 
with  it. 

Culture. — The  preparation  of  land  for  watermelons  is 
like  that  for  sugar  beets,  already  described.  In  regions  of 
heavy  rainfall  the  fall  plowing  should  be  done  with  enough 
dead  furrows  to  remove  surplus  water  so  that  the  spring 
plowing  may  not  be  delayed  by  wetness.  Two  spring 
plowings  and  pulverizations  are  desirable  on  the  heavier 
soils. 

The  land  is  laid  off  with  a  marker  in  six  or  eight  feet 
squares,  and  planted,  after  danger  from  frost  is  over  and 
the  ground  is  warm,  with  10  or  12  seeds  in  a  place  to  cover 
accidents  and  insects.  These  are  reduced  at  the  first  hoe- 
ing to  one  or  two  plants  in  a  place.  The  cultivator  should 


VARIETIES  OF  WATERMELON.  287 

be  used  as  soon  as  possible  to  prevent  crusting  of  the  soil, 
and  cultivation  should  be  kept  up  until  it  interferes  too 
much  with  the  growth  of  the  vines.  During  the  first  two 
months  of  their  growth  the  cultivator  is  almost  constantly 
running  in  the  melon  fields. 

Time  of  planting  is,  of  course,  dependent  upon  the  frost 
record  of  the  locality.  To  get  the  earliest  melons,  grow- 
ers often  take  the  chance  of  replanting  by  planting  in 
March  if  it  is  an  early  spring  and  the  soil  is  in  good  con- 
dition. In  light  interior  soils  the  most  of  the  planting  is 
done  in  April,  and  in  frosty  situations  early  in  May.  For 
succession,  planting  can  proceed  on  moist  or  irrigated  land 
until  July,  and  in  frostless  locations  July  planting  will 
give  ripe  melons  as  late  as  New  Year's. 

Harvesting. — When  early  sowings  succeed,  melons  can 
be  had  in  June  in  the  interior,  but  the  weight  of  the  crop 
comes  in  July  or  August.  An  average  yield  in  field  cul- 
ture is  one  carload,  or  one  hundred  dozen  melons  to  the 
acre.  Sizes  run  from  a  common  merchantable  size  of  20 
pounds  up  to  a  monster  of  131%  pounds,  grown  in  Los 
Angeles  county  many  years  ago.  Melons  of  90  to  100 
pounds  have  been  reported  from  all  regions  which  make 
any  pretentions  to  greatness  in  this  line. 

Varieties. — Everything  offered  by  seedsmen  in  the  form 
of  an  improved  watermelon  is  quickly  put  into  California 
soil.  The  result  is  that  in  the  State  as  a  whole  very  many 
varieties  are  grown,  probably  as  many  as  of  any  single 
garden  plant.  Still  a  few  varieties  are  easily  leading  in 
popularity.  The  most  famous  variety  in  the  central  part 
for  the  last  quarter  of  a  century  has  been  the  "Lodi,"  a 
variety  believed  to  be  of  local  origin,  taking  its  name  from 
the  locality  where  largely  grown,  in  San  Joaquin  county, 
but  the  Lodi  is  now  yielding  even  in  its  own  region  to 
other  varieties,  and  its  decadence  is  probably  in  part  due 
to  lack  of  proper  selection  in  seed  sowing  on  the  part  of 
the  growers,  and  the  superiority  of  newer  sorts. 

Florida  Favorite:  large,  oblong,  deep  green,  mottled; 
good  flavor  and  a  good  early  variety  and  a  good  shipper. 


288  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES. 

Fordhook  Early:  very  early,  medium  size,  globular, 
tough  deep  mottled  green  rind,  red  flesh;  good  for  early 
shipping. 

Dixie:  large  and  handsome,  dark  green,  beautifully 
striped,  hardy  and  productive,  sweet,  juicy,  and  tender, 
scarlet  flesh.  A  good  shipping  variety. 

Cuban  Queen:  large,  symmetrical,  solid,  rind  thin  and 
strong,  striped  with  dark  and  light  green,  flesh  red,  tender, 
and  very  sweet,  vine  very  strong  in  growth  and  produc- 
tive. Melons  keep  well  and  ship  well. 

Mammoth  Ironclad:  resembles  Cuban  Queen  in  mark- 
ings ;  melons  uniformly  large,  with  hard,  tough  rind,  flesh 
very  red  and  solid,  productive,  and  a  good  shipper. 

Kolb  Gem :  round,  dark  green,  with  light  green  stripes, 
which  are  narrow  and  of  dull  color,  fair  size,  flesh  bright 
red  and  good  flavor,  tough  rind  and  a  good  shipper. 

Iceberg:  like  Kolb  Gem,  but  darker  green  and  flesh 
deep  red;  a  good  shipper. 

Southern  Rattlesnake :  oblong,  light  green,  beautifully 
striped,  thin  rind,  flesh  scarlet,  solid,  and  very  sweet. 

Lodi:  large,  solid,  light  green,  flesh  deep  red,  rich  and 
delicious,  and  extending  to  within  half  an  inch  of  the  rind. 
For  many  years  this  variety  almost  controlled  California 
markets  and  is  still  largely  grown. 

Mountain  Sweet :  large,  long,  flesh  red,  firm  and  sweet ; 
good  for  home  garden. 

Peerless :  nearly  round,  pale  green,  thin  rind,  red  flesh, 
very  sweet. 

Chilian :  oblong,  deep  green,  mottled  and  striped,  flesh 
bright  red,  sweet  and  high  quality;  good  for  home  use 
because  of  thin,  brittle  rind. 

Kleckley  Sweet:  medium  sized,  oval,  dark  green,  flesh 
bright  red,  high  quality,  largely  grown  in  central  Cali- 
fornia for  home  use  and  shipping. 

Ice  Cream:  very  large,  long,  solid  deep  green,  flesh 
deep  pink. 


CHAPTER  XXV. 
THE  ONION  FAMILY. 

Onion. — Allium  cepa. 

French,  ognon ;  German,  zwiebel ;  Dutch,  uijen  ;  Danish, 
voglog;  Italian,  cipolla;  Spanish,  cebolla;  Portuguese, 
cebola. 

Leek. — Allium  porrum. 

French,  poireau;  German,  lauch;  Dutch,  prei;  Danish, 
porre;  Italian,  porro;  Spanish,  puerro;  Portuguese,  alho 
porro. 

Garlic. — Allium  sativum. 

French,  ail;  German,  knoblauch;  Dutch,  knoflook; 
Danish,  hvidlog;  Italian,  aglio;  Spanish,  ajo;  Portuguese, 
alho. 

Chives. — Allium  sclwenoprasum. 

French,  ciboulette,  civette ;  German^  schnittlauch ; 
Dutch,  bieslook;  Italian,  cipollina;  Spanish,  cebollino. 

Ciboule. — Allium  fistulosum. 

French,  ciboule ;  German,  schnitt-zwiebel ;  Dutch,  bies- 
look ;  Danish,  purlog ;  Italian,  cipolleta ;  Spanish,  cebol- 
leta;  Portuguese,  cebolinah. 

Shallot. — Allium  ascalonicum. 

French,  echalote;  German,  schalotte ;  Dutch,  sjalot; 
Danish,  skalottelog ;  Italian,  scalogno ;  Spanish,  chalote ; 
Portuguese,  echalota. 

The  onion  is  another  of  the  great  vegetables  in  Califor- 
nia— great  in  the  size  of  the  tubers  and  in  the  crop,  great 
also  in  the  ease  with  which  a  constant  supply  of  fresh 
onions  can  be  secured  throughout  the  year  in  the  open  air ; 
greater  still,  perhaps,  in  the  fact  that  the  superb  local 
conditions  for  onion-seed  growing  have  given  California 
the  power  to  set  prices  for  the  onion-seed  trade  of  the 


290  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES. 

United  States,  and  we  have  sometimes  produced  more  seed 
than  could  be  sold  with  profit  to  the  growers.  Though 
the  local  consumption  of  onions,  in  proportion  to  the  popu- 
lation, is  large,  and  though  there  is  an  export  trade  in  all 
directions,  there  is  now  and  then  an  over-production  and  a 
reaction  even  to  scarcity,  so  that  the  market  price  is  sub- 
ject to  wide  fluctuations.  A  more  trustworthy  demand 
would  develop  a  producing  capacity  which  has  thus  far 
hardly  been  entered  upon  although  during  recent  years 
distant  shipment  of  onions  has  notably  increased.  The 
California  onion  product  sometimes  exceeds  300,000  sacks 
per  year. 

Though  local  conditions  are  favorable,  and  almost  in- 
credible returns  are  sometimes  secured,  onion  growing  is 
exacting  in  its  requirements  in  California,  as  everywhere, 
and  the  crop  is  one  which  no  one  should  undertake  with- 
out adequate  resources  of  energy,  patience,  promptness 
and  elasticity — either  in  his  back  or  in  his  pocketbook. 
No  matter  how  well  suited  his  soil,  or  how  good  his  stand 
of  young  plants  upon  it,  a  few  days'  neglect  may  put 
them  out  of  sight  in  a  forest  of  weeds,  from  which  they 
cannot  be  profitably  rescued.  Still,  to  the  diligent  grower 
who  can  command  suitable  soil  and  the  labor  needed  at  a 
certain  time,  and  is  prompt  and  persistent  in  the  use  of  it, 
there  is  always  the  promise  of  as  fair  a  crop  as  man  needs 
to  see,  for  the  climate  not  only  favors  growth,  maturing 
and  harvesting,  but  it  gives  the  plant  freedom  from  many 
pests  and  diseases,  which  are  grievous  in  other  countries. 

Situations  and  Soils. — The  onion  is  profited  by  a  long 
growing  season.  It  grows  most  luxuriantly  and  its  bulb 
expands  most  freely  in  a  moderate  temperature  and  with 
a  good  moisture  supply.  It  endures  heat  well,  if  moisture 
is  ample ;  it  is  easily  forced  into  maturity  by  drought,  and 
though  it  is  fortunate,  in  some  respects,  that  the  bulb  has 
the  power  to  renew  its  growth  and  reach  full  size  with  the 
renewal  of  moisture,  this  is  little  consolation  to  the  grower 
who  aimed  at  a  crop  of  marketable  onions,  not  of  onion 
sets.  It  is  important,  then,  that  the  growth  of  the  plant 


SOILS  FOR  THE  ONION.  291 

be  not  arrested  in  this  way,  and,  to  assure  this,  moisture 
must  be  adequate  until  satisfactory  size  is  attained.  Land 
naturally  moist,  or  in  which  a  good  supply  may  be  re- 
tained by  cultivation,  or  for  which  irrigation  is  available 
to  counteract  natural  tendency  to  dryness,  is  necessary 
for  the  full  success  of  the  onion  as  a  mature  crop.  In  the 
winter,  if  rains  are  up  to  the  average,  very  good  growth 
of  green  onions  can  be  had  on  land  which  is  too  dry  in 
summer  to  carry  the  bulb  to  full-sized  maturity.  For 
satisfactory  summer  finishing  of  the  crop,  soils  which  are 
prone  to  dry  out  must  be  avoided,  unless  irrigation  is 
available.  How  this  matter  is  affected  by  methods  of 
propagation  will  appear  presently. 

If  the  needed  moisture  can  be  afforded,  onions  can  be 
well  grown  on  a  variety  of  soils.  Quite  heavy  adobe  can 
be  made  to  do,  but  it  will  be  at  the  cost  of  most  thorough 
cultivation,  producing  tilth  which  is  difficult  and  expen- 
sive to  attain  on  such  soil.  Every  addition  of  sand  or  silt 
to  the  adobe  improves  it  in  this  respect,  and  the  ideal  soil 
for  the  onion  is  one  which  is  retentive  enough  under  culti- 
vation to  keep  the  plant  roots  from  a  touch  of  drought, 
and  friable  enough  to  be  easy  in  cultivation  and  easy  also 
for  the  expanding  bulb  to  displace  as  it  grows.  The  bulb 
should  expand  on  the  ground  surface,  not  under  it,  and  it 
is  very  difficult  to  secure  this  on  a  clay  without  baking 
of  the  surface,  which  dries  the  roots  and  results  in  pre- 
maturity and  small  size  in  the  bulb.  On  the  other  hand, 
sandy  soil  is  usable  only  at  a  cost  of  frequent  irrigation, 
for  it  also  loses  surface  moisture  in  spite  of  stirring.  Be- 
sides suitable  mechanical  condition  of  the  soil,  it  is  essen- 
tial that  it  shall  be  rich  in  plant  food.  Onions  resent  a 
poor  soil.  Fortunately  California  has  large  areas  of  loam, 
of  mixed  peat  and  sediment,  and  of  alluvial  soils,  which 
are  so  rich  that  many  onion  crops  can  be  grown  without 
fertilizing,  but  in  garden  work  the  free  use  of  manure  is 
the  secret  of  quick,  tender  and  large  size,  both  in  the 
green  and  mature  onion.  But  the  use  of  fresh  manure 
just  before  planting  is  not  desirable  and  even  well  rotted 


292  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES. 

manure  should  be  applied  several  months  in  advance  of 
planting  that  it  may  become  thoroughly  incorporated 
with  the  soil. 

The  great  onion  regions  of  the  State  are  the  lower 
stretches  of  the  rich  coast  valleys  and  the  moist  river 
lands  in  the  interior.  Fine  onions  for  local  use  are  grown 
on  upland  loams,  with  or  without  irrigation,  according  to 
local  climatic  conditions.  All  these  classes  of  lands  are 
distributed  throughout  the  State. 

Propagation  of  the  Onion. — The  onion  is  grown  here,  as 
elsewhere,  by  three  main  lines  of  propagation :  from  seed 
sown  in  the  field;  from  transplanted  seedlings  and  from 
sets.  The  last  is  by  far  the  least  important  in  California, 
and  the  choice  between  the  other  two  depends  upon  the 
special  end  in  view,  as  will  appear  in  the  discussion  of 
them. 

The  Crop  from  Seed. — In  this  case  the  growth  is  to  be 
pushed  continuously  on  the  same  ground  from  seed  to 
sack.  The  main  crop  is  grown  in  this  way,  and  for  this 
method  California  has  manifest  advantage  in  its  long 
growing  season.  Field-sowing  can  be  done  as  early  as 
February,  and  on  retentive  soils  moisture  can  be  held  by 
summer  cultivation,  or  on  coarser  soils  by  irrigation  and 
cultivation,  until  the  bulbs  reach  as  large  a  size  as  is  de- 
sirable for  marketing. 

For  seed-sowing  the  land  should  be  as  deeply  and 
thoroughly  prepared  as  has  already  been  prescribed  for 
sugar  beets.  The  work  should  begin  with  fall  plowing  to 
open  the  surface  for  absorption  of  rainfall,  to  be  followed 
later  by  a  deep  cross-plowing  to  fully  turn  in  the  crop  of 
weeds  and  grass  which  will  come  with  moisture.  After 
that  a  shallow  plowing  or  cultivation  may  be  given  to 
kill  later  growth  of  weeds  and  to  contribute  to  surface 
pulverization.  The  seed  should  be  sown  when  the  advance 
of  the  season  warms  the  soil.  The  precise  date  depends 
upon  two  considerations :  first,  the  local  rainfall,  and, 
second,  the  local  weed  growth.  Where  spring  rains  are 
usually  light,  earlier  sowing  is  best;  where  spring  rains 


GROWING  ONIONS  FROM  SEED.  293 

are  usually  generous  and  where  weed  growth  Js  great,  it 
is  often  wise  to  defer  sowing  and  use  the  cultivator  for 
weed-killing,  so  that  the  ground  may  be  as  clean  as  pos- 
sible before  the  seed  is  sown.  Weeding  onions  is  one  of 
the  most  expensive  and  tiresome  of  all  field  practices,  and 
it  is  good  policy,  where  moisture  is  ample,  to  sow  much 
later  in  the  spring  for  the  advantage  of  securing  cleaner 
land,  as  well  as  to  prevent  the  growth  of  "thick-necks" 
or  scallions  which  though  edible  are  not  good  keepers  nor 
good  marketable  tubers.  Each  locality  has  its  own  policy 
in  this  respect,  which  can  be  learned  by  conference  with 
experienced  growers. 

When  the  sowing  time  comes  be  sure  the  land  is  fined 
well.  Use  nothing  but  the  freshest  seed  from  responsible 
dealers;  mark  out  a  straight  line  for  beginning  and  sow 
the  seed  with  a  seeder  with  a  guide  so  that  the  straight- 
ness  of  the  first  row  may  be  followed  in  the  others.  If  the 
rows  begin  to  vary  from  this,  strike  another  straight  line 
and  proceed  again  from  this.  Distance  between  the  rows 
depends  upon  the  method  of  cultivation  to  be  adopted; 
some  are  grown  with  two  feet  distance  and  horse  cultiva- 
tion is  used,  but  most  growers  choose  a  distance  of  12  to 
16  inches  and  use  hand  cultivation.  The  hand  hoes,  or 
cultivators  with  wheels,  work  very  easily  and  rapidly  in 
light  soils.  Care  must  be  taken  to  work  them  deeply 
enough  to  produce  a  good  soil  mulch. 

Depth  of  covering  the  seed  depends  upon  season,  mois- 
ture and  character  of  soil,  as  explained  on  page  157. 
With  onions  the  depth  would  vary  from  one-half  an  inch 
on  heavy  soil  to  one  inch  on  light,  or  slightly  more  on 
light  soil  in  a  dry  locality,  is  about  the  range.  The  seeder 
should  be  set  to  drop  the  seeds  about  three-quarters  of  an 
inch  apart  in  the  drill,  which  will  use  from  four  to  five 
pounds  to  the  acre.  After  sowing,  the  ground  can  be 
firmed  in  any  of  the  ways  mentioned  on  page  158.  A  light 
roller  is  most  expeditious  and  satisfactory  if  the  soil  is  in 
the  right  condition  of  moisture. 

Onion  seed  is  sometimes  rather  slow  in  starting  and  the 


294  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES. 

cultivation  should  not  wait  until  the  plants  appear.  Mr. 
S.  J.  Murdock,  of  Orange  county,  shows  how  skillfully 
the  hand  wheel  hoe  can  be  used  in  the  onion  field. 

"After  seeding,  thorough,  shallow  cultivation  is  essen- 
tial. Do  not  wait  until  the  plants  are  up  before  begin- 
ning ;  from  four  to  eight  days  will  be  proper,  or  when  the 
seed  begins  to  show  signs  of  germinating,  which  can  be 
ascertained  by  carefully  brushing  the  soil  from  the  drill 
row.  I  put  the  curved  hoes  on  my  wheel  hoe,  with  the 
straight  ends  of  the  hoes  pointing  inwards  and  lapping 
about  two  inches  and  hoe  right  over  the  rows  but  not 
deep  enough  to  disturb  the  seed.  It  saves  a  great  amount 
of  hand-weeding  by  killing  the  weeds  just  starting  to 
grow  in  the  rows.  As  soon  as  the  onions  are  up  suffici- 
ently to  follow  the  rows,  I  reverse  my  hoes,  with  the 
curved  ends  next  to  the  rows,  just  far  enough  apart  so 
as  to  hoe  as  close  as  possible  without  cutting  the  young 
plants  by  running  the  hoes  astride  the  rows.  This  op- 
eration hoes  both  sides  of  the  row  at  one  trip  of  the  ma- 
chine. Follow  this  by  hand-weeding;  this  operation  is 
best  performed  by  the  crawling  process,  that  is,  by  get- 
ting down  on  hands  and  knees  astride  of  a  row  and  pull- 
ing every  weed  in  sight,  and  loosening  the  soil  around 
and  between  the  plants.  Repeat  this  as  often  as  any 
weeds  are  to  be  found,  and  under  no  circumstances  allow 
the  weeds  to  grow  above  the  onions ;  at  the  same  time 
keep  the  wheel  hoe  at  work  between  the  rows  and  as 
close  as  possible." 

As  previously  said,  the  bulb  of  the  onion  should  be  at 
the  ground  surface,  and  the  dirt  should  not  be  thrown  to 
any  extent  on  the  onions  by  cultivation.  The  roots  should 
be  well  covered,  but  not  the  bulb. 

Transplanted  Onions. — Next  to  growth  from  the  seed, 
the  transplanting  of  small  seedlings  from  the  seed-bed  to 
the  field,  is  most  practiced  in  California.  This  method  has 
recently  been  proclaimed  in  the  Eastern  and  Southern 
States  as  a  "new  onion  culture,"  but  it  is  really  an  old 
practice  in  the  south  of  Europe,  and  has  been  followed  in 


TRANSPLANTING  ONIONS.  295 

California  for  a  third  of  a  century  or  more  in  preference 
to  starting  from  onion  sets.  It  is  a  fact  that  transplant- 
ing produces  more  uniformly  large  onions  than  growth 
from  the  seed  in  place,  and  the  crop  also  reaches  maturity 
sooner,  as  the  transplanting  does  not  sacrifice  the  time 
gained  by  the  earlier  start  in  the  seed-bed.  Employing 
these  two  points  of  advantage  in  a  region  suitable  to  quick 
winter  growth,  a  very  early  crop  of  mature  onions  is  se- 
cured, which  sometimes  strikes  a  bare  market  and  is  very 
profitable,  while  the  regular  crop,  coming  in  later,  may  be 
worth  much  less. 

Seedlings  for  transplanting  are  grown  in  California  in 
the  open  air,  according  to  the  conditions  for  germination 
described  on  pages  156  to  160.  Where  there  is  likelihood 
of  heavy  rains  the  raised  bed  described  in  the  chapter  on 
cultivation  is  a  safeguard,  but  where  the  soil  naturally 
drains  well,  or  where  rain  is  light,  such  arrangement  is 
not  necessary.  Nor  is  it  necessary  that  the  culture  should 
be  very  deep.  The  seed  is  started  in  the  fall,  when  the 
rate  of  evaporation  is  reduced.  Shallow  culture  promotes 
early  growth  and,  if  the  soil  has  been  previously  deeply 
moistened,  there  is  no  need  of  such  deep  work  as  would 
be  desirable  if  the  plant  was  to  pursue  its  full  course  in 
that  place. 

Some  growers  use  a  little  bottom  heat  by  covering  in 
fresh  horse  manure  with  the  plow  and  shallow  working 
the  surface  into  fine  tilth.  This  practice  is  not  essential. 
It  is  best  suited  to  heavy  soil  and  ample  moisture ;  it  has 
an  element  of  danger  on  light  soil  with  scant  moisture. 
The  seed  is  sown  at  different  times  in  different  localities 
from  September  to  November — the  early  date  in  northern 
California,  for  the  rains  come  earlier,  the  weather  is  cooler 
and  the  plants  of  slower  growth,  in  the  south  a  later 
start  agrees  better  with  the  rainfall,  and  more  rapid 
growth  brings  the  seedling  to  planting-size  in  less  time. 

The  seed  is  usually  thickly  sown  broadcast,  lightly  cov- 
ered and  rolled  or  pressed  down.  The  surface  is  protected 
fom  drying  and  from  packing  by  heavy  rain,  with  a  light 


296  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES. 

mulch  of  fine  manure,  covered  with  boards  until  the 
shoots  appear,  or  covered  with  a  single  thickness  of  old 
sacking  until  the  shoots  begin  to  pierce  it.  Any  device 
which  keeps  the  surface  moist  and  loose  is  applicable. 
The  plants  usually  reach  a  height  of  six  or  eight  inches  at 
time  of  transplanting. 

Transplanting. — Transplanted  onions  are  usually  grown 
on  lighter  soils  than  those  from  seed  because  the  crop  is  to 
mature  earlier  and  is  not  so  dependent  upon  moisture  re- 
tention. Again  the  lighter,  warmer  soils  give  the  most 
rapid  winter  growth,  as  already  stated.  Preparation  of 
the  land  is  the  same  as  for  seed  sowing  and  the  transplant- 
ing is  done  at  about  the  same  time  of  the  year — from 
February  onward,  according  to  local  climate  and  soil  con- 
ditions. The  plants  are  pulled,  if  the  seed-bed  is  sandy, 
and  they  lift  easily,  or  lifted  with  a  shovel  and  separated. 
The  top  and  roots  are  shortened  about  half  the  length  of 
each,  and  the  plants,  dropped  along  the  rows  by  boys,  are 
set,  with  the  finger  or  dibble,  three  inches  apart  in  rows 
12  inches  distant,  pressing  the  soil  firmly  around  the  plant. 
Planting  can  be  done  by  line  or  with  a  roller  encircled  by 
rope  at  proper  distance  or  by  marking  out  shallow  fur- 
rows with  the  hand  wheel  hoe,  etc.  The  lines  must  be 
straight  for  ease  and  efficiency  of  subsequent  cultivation, 
which  must  be  clean  and  thorough. 

The  cost  of  growing  seedlings  and  transplanting  is  more 
than  field  seed-sowing,  but  the  weeding,  and  cultivation 
of  the  former  is  less.  If  there  is  no  particular  rush  about 
earliness,  transplanting  can  be  done  after  the  most  of  the 
season's  weed-starting  is  over.  Some  growers  count  this 
quite  a  gain. 

Growing  from  Sets. — There  are  at  least  three  kinds  of 
onion  sets:  "top  setif"  or  buttons  which  form  on  the  seed 
stem  in  the  place  of  the  seed,  according  to  variety;  "bot- 
tom sets, ' '  which  are  either  small  bulbs  from  thickly  sown 
seed,  prematurely  ripened,  or  small  bulbs  which  form  be- 
side the  old  bulbs  in  some  varieties.  In  California  the 
varieties  which  habitually  produce  top  or  bottom  sets  in 


GROWING  FROM  SETS.  297 

connection  with  stem  or  bulb  (the  so-called  "tree  onion" 
and  "potato  onion"),  are  not  grown  to  any  extent.  They 
are  inferior  to  other  varieties  which  are  satisfactory  in 
this  climate.  All  onion  sets  have  the  habit  of  proceeding 
with  their  enlargement  when  placed  in  moist  ground,  but 
some  growers  find  the  bottom  sets  from  seed  are  more 
likely  to  run  to  seed  than  top  sets  from  the  seed  stem.  Mr. 
Adams,  of  Calistoga,  is  in  the  habit  of  growing  his  own 
top  sets  in  this  way : 

"Plant  the  onions  of  the  variety  which  produces  top  sets 
in  the  place  of  seed,  eight  or  ten  inches  apart,  with  rows 
two  feet  apart;  cultivate  well  and  gather  the  sets  when 
the  seed-stalks  are  ripe  or  perfectly  yellow.  Let  the  sets 
get  well  dried,  then  store  in  a  cool,  dry  place  six  or  eight 
inches  deep  on  a  board  floor  and  cover  with  clean,  dry 
straw.  Never  put  them  in  sacks,  boxes  or  barrels,  as  they 
will  most  surely  mold. 

' '  In  growing  onions  from  these  top  sets,  I  plant  them  as 
early  in  February  as  the  ground  is  suitable,  on  the  rich- 
est of  my  land ;  make  the  rows  perfectly  straight  by  using 
a  strong  garden  line ;  make  rows  one  foot  apart;  press  the 
sets  firmly  into  the  mellow  soil  nearly  or  quite  out  of 
sight,  placing  them  an  inch  or  so  apart.  When  they  are 
nicely  up,  a  good  top  dressing  of  fine,  dry,  decomposed 
Jien  manure  sown  broadcast  and  well  hoed  in,  is  most  ex- 
cellent, especially  just  before  a  warm  rain.  A  few  weeks 
later  a  light  dressing  of  ground  bone,  or  unleached  ashes, 
will  forward  them  wonderfully,  and  in  a  short  time  you 
will  have  onions  fit  for  an  epicure.  Thin  out  as  wanted 
for  use,  or  for  the  purpose  of  raising  top  sets  for  another 
year." 

The  foregoing  is  obviously  for  garden,  not  for  field 
practice.  In  fact,  for  field  work,  sets  of  any  kind  are  not 
used  to  any  extent  in  California. 

Bottom  sets  from  seed  are  grown  by  sowing  the  seed 
thickly,  allowing  the  plants  to  grow  without  thinning,  and 
to  mature  by  the  drying  of  the  ground,  when  about  the 
size  of  marbles.  These  are  then  pulled,  dried  thoroughly 


298  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES. 

on  the  surface  of  the  ground  and  are  then  stored  in  a  cool, 
dry  place  until  planted.  Recently  considerable  quantities 
of  sets  are  fall  grown  in  southern  California  for  shipment 
to  Texas  to  be  there  grown  to  maturity  by  early  spring 
planting. 

Irrigation  of  Onions. — Though  our  onion  crops  are 
largely  grown  without  irrigation,  it  is  often  desirable  to 
use  water  to  carry  the  summer  growth  to  satisfactory  size 
on  coarse  soils  prone  to  dry  out.  Water  can  be  applied 
by  any  of  the  methods  described  in  the  chapter  on  irriga- 
tion. Enough  water  should  be  used  to  secure  thrifty,  but 
not  excessive,  growth,  and  stirring  of  the  ground  after 
irrigation  should  only  be  delayed  long  enough  to  bring 
the  soil  into  proper  working  condition. 

Sometimes  transplanting  is  done  in  connection  with  ir- 
rigation. The  plants  are  properly  trimmed  and  placed  in 
the  trenches  alongside  the  irrigating  furrows,  on  a  slant 
to  keep  the  tops  from  the  wet  ground  (made  so  by  apply- 
ing the  water).  They  will  readily  take  root,  when  they 
may  be  straightened  up  by  the  hoe.  Sometimes  the  water 
may  be  passed  through  the  trenches,  when  the  plants  may 
be  put  in  place  by  hand. 

Harvesting  Onions. — In  the  maturing  of  the  crop  and 
the  harvesting  California  has  great  advantage  in  a  warm, 
dry  summer  and  early  fall.  Mr.  Murdock,  of  Orange 
county,  gives  these  suggestions  on  harvesting : 

"When  the  tops  have  turned  yellow  and  dried  or  shriv- 
eled up  near  the  bulbs,  and  the  majority  have  fallen  over, 
the  crop  is  ripe  and  ready  to  harvest.  If  on  moist  land 
they  should  be  harvested  at  once,  for  if  left  long  in  the 
ground  the  moisture  from  below  and  heavy  fogs  of  the 
coast  region  will  soon  cause  them  to  start  new  roots,  also 
a  new  growtk  of  top,  which  would  soon  spoil  the  whole 
crop.  On  dry  land,  however,  the  summer  crops  can  re- 
main quite  a  while  without  injury. 

"Harvesting  is  done  by  pulling  two  or  more  rows;  lay 
the  onions  next  to  the  standing  rows,  and  when  across 
the  plot,  turn  round  and  pull  a  like  number  of  rows  and 


GARDEN  ONIONS.  299 

lay  with  the  ones  previously  pulled.  This  leaves  them 
in  a  continuous  pile  across  the  field  for  topping,  which  is 
generally  done  with  a  sharp  knife  after  the  onions  have 
laid  a  few  days  to  more  fully  mature.  While  topping, 
the  bulbs*  are  usually  thrown  in  heaps  ready  for  market 
or  to  store  away,  as  the  grower  may  determine.  It  is  best 
to  sack  or  haul  from  the  fields  while  the  sun  shines,  as 
the  onions  should  be  perfectly  dry  in  either  case." 

Yield. — Ten  tons  per  acre  is  a  fair  yield  on  good  soil, 
well  handled,  but  this  amount  is  frequently  exceeded  and 
even  30  tons  has  been  secured,  according  to  credible  testi- 
mony. 

Garden  Culture  of  Onions. — Garden  culture  proceeds 
upon  about  the  same  lines  as  field  work,  and  by  methods 
already  described.  Due  regard  should  be  had  for  suc- 
cession, and  by  proper  use  of  water  in  summer  and  of 
ridge  or  raised  bed  in  early  winter,  it  is  practicable  to 
have  crisp,  young  onions  all  the  year,  and  mature  ones 
with  but  a  very  short  season  of  storage.  Onions  have  been 
matured  from  seed  sown  every  month  of  the  year,  but  the 
ripening  was  not  reached  every  month  because  progress 
is  slower  at  one  time  than  at  another. 

In  the  garden  onions  should  have  most  generous  treat- 
ment, for  delicate  flavor  and  crispness  depend  upon  quick 
growth.  The  use  of  fertilizers  in  preparation  of  the  soil, 
and  of  liquid  manure  during  growth,  are  strong  helps  to- 
ward this.  The  onion  accepts  gratefully  the  richest  man- 
ures if  well  decomposed  and  well  mixed  with  the  soil. 

The  first  top-onions  in  the  fall  can  be  grown  by  using 
bottom  sets  planted  closely  in  the  row  just  as  soon  as  the 
ground  is  well  moistened  by  early  rains.  The  succession 
can  be  had  by  sowing  seed  at  intervals,  beginning  at  the 
same  time  the  sets  are  put  in  and  continued  when  the 
ground  is  in  good  condition  until  spring. 

The  following  method  of  growing  sets  for  garden  use 
is  approved  by  the  experience  of  Mr.  F.  Austin,  of  San 
Diego  county,  who  grows  fine  vegetables  for  the  love  of 
it :  Sow  the  seed  in  the  spring,  say  March,  not  later  than 


300  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES. 

April,  then  as  the  plants  develop  in  the  drills  which  have 
been  sown  not  too  thick,  and  begin  to  assume  size  and 
form  of  bulb,  at  both  sides  of  the  row  begin  to  remove  the 
earth  with  the  hoe,  the  object  being  to  retard  the  growth 
of  top  and  form  a  "set"  below.  This  is  repeated,  going 
along  each  side  of  the  growing  onions,  removing  the  dirt 
and  even  cutting  some  of  the  roots  a  second  time.  The 
tops  begin  to  wither  but  the  bulb  increases  in  size  until 
finally  you  run  the  hoe  entirely  under  the  roots  severing 
them  and  leaving  the  now  new  formed  i  l  sets ' '  to  dry  for  a 
few  days,  when  you  take  them  by  the  handful  from  the 
row  and  shake  off  the  dirt  and  put  them  away  under  cover 
from  sun  in  a  cool  place  until,  say,  October.  Then  plant 
these  "sets"  and  they  will  grow  to  onions  fast  and  in 
advance  of  anything  you  can  get  from  seed  and  give  you 
large  juicy  onions. 

Rotation, — The  advantage  of  clean  land  for  onions  has 
been  mentioned.  This  is  often  best  secured  by  allowing 
onions  to  follow  carrots  or  potatoes  or  corn.  The  cultiva- 
tion of  these  vegetables  sprouts  and  kills  many  weeds, 
which  are  more  easily  handled  in  connection  with  those 
crops  than  with  the  onions.  The  cultivation  also  renders 
the  soil  more  friable,  which  is  a  prime  requisite  to  the 
growth  of  onions. 

Intercropping. — Large  quantities  of  onions  are  grown 
in  strawberry  regions,  being  irrigated  incidentally  in  con- 
nection with  the  berries.  The  strawberry  plants  are  on 
ridges  in  rows  18  or  20  inches  apart;  the  onion  row  be- 
tween the  strawberry  rows  parallel  thereto  in  the  center 
of  the  ridge,  the  ridges  being  also  18  to  20  inches  apart,  so 
that  the  water  runs  down  between  the  ridges.  Onions 
are  also  grown  between  the  trees  in  young  orchard  on  rich, 
deep,  moist,  or  irrigated  land.  This  cannot  be  long  con- 
tinued to  advantage,  as  onions  do  not  take  kindly  to  shade, 
but  delight  in  full  sunshine. 

Varieties. — Out  of  the  multitude  of  varieties  a  few  have 
proved  most  serviceable  and  satisfactory  for  California 


VARIETIES  OF  ONIONS.  301 

conditions,  and  California  seedsmen  are  constantly  secur- 
ing improved  types  by  selection : 

Barletta:  very  early,  small,  pure  white,  smooth  and 
handsome;  largely  grown  for  pickling  also  for  early  top 
onions  in  garden  culture. 

California  Early  Red:  very  early,  large  size,  flattish, 
mild  flavor ;  not  a  good  keeper.  Chiefly  grown  by  Italian 
market  gardeners  and  the  variety  probably  was  introduced 
from  Italy. 

New  Queen  or  Pearl:  small,  early  white,  fine  flavor. 
Chiefly  grown  for  pickling  and  for  top  onions;  especially 
popular  in  southern  California. 

Silver  Skin  or  White  Portugal:  silvery  white,  medium 
size,  excellent  flavor  and  esteemed  for  table  use.  Small 
bulbs  largely  used  for  pickling. 

White  Italian  Tripoli:  very  large,  flat,  white,  rapid 
grower  and  productive,  ships  well,  approved  in  southern 
California  as  an  early  variety. 

Prize-Taker  or  Spanish  King :  very  large  and  beautiful, 
rich  straw  color,  flesh  white,  sweet  and  tender ;  productive 
and  keeps  well. 

Australian  Brown :  flat,  light  brown,  a  long  keeper  and 
good  shipper;  very  productive  on  rich,  sandy  soil  with 
ample  moisture. 

Australian  Brown  Globe :  popular  in  southern  Califor- 
nia ;  globular,  light  brown,  heavy  and  ships  well ;  quick  to 
maturity  but  a  long  keeper. 

White  Bermuda:  yellowish  white,  flat,  very  early, 
chiefly  grown  in  southern  California  for  early  shipment. 

Red  Bermuda:  resembles  White  Bermuda,  except  in 
color. 

Flat  Danvers:   very  early,  yellow,  considerably  grown. 

Yellow  Globe  Danvers:  large,  round,  yields  well  and 
keeps  well;  solid  and  of  good  flavor.  One  of  the  main 
varieties  in  all  parts  of  California. 

Red  Wethersfield :  large,  round,  slightly  flattened,  deep 
red  with  white  flesh,  strongly  flavored,  well  adapted  for 


302  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES. 

low,-  moist  soils,  hardy.    This  and  Danvers  Globe  consti- 
tute a  main  part  of  the  California  product. 

Tree-onion:  a  variety  which  produces  top-sets  instead 
of  seed  at  the  head  of  the  seed  stem.  Used  in  garden  cul- 
ture as  already  described.  It  serves  a  good  purpose  under 
certain  conditions,  but  is  very  little  used  in  this  State. 

THE  LEEK. 

California  produces  large  quantities  of  leek  seed  for  dis- 
tant sale,  but  the  leek  itself  is  but  little  grown  in  Cali- 
fornia, except  by  market  gardeners,  and  its  use  is  chiefly 
by  citizens  of  foreign  birth.  The  edible  part  is  the 
blanched  lower  leaves  of  the  plant.  The  culture  is  at  first 
practically  the  same  as  that  described  for  transplanted 
onions,  except  that  the  young  leek  plant  is  deeply  set  in 
a  depression  in  friable  soil,  and  as  it  grows  the  earth  is 
drawn  about  the  leaves,  which  are  tightly  sheathed  to- 
gether so  as  to  blanch  them  into  the  appearance  of  a  thick 
white  stem.  Thus  the  later  cultivation  of  the  plant  re- 
sembles that  of  celery.  It  is  handiest  in  the  garden  to  sow 
the  seed  in  drills  one  foot  apart,  at  intervals  from  fall  to 
spring,  so  as  to  have  a  succession,  and  plant  the  seedlings 
when  about  the  diameter  of  a  goose  quill,  in  the  bottom 
of  a  drill  or  furrow  several  inches  deep.  The  plants  need 
wide  spacing,  say  six  to  ten  inches,  for  they  reach  con- 
siderable thickness  and  make  large  display  of  leaves.  Cul- 
tivation gradually  levels  the  ground.  Leeks  need  ample 
moisture  and  good  cultivation  to  attain  fine  size  and  ten- 
derness. If  the  blanching  is  not  particularly  cared  for, 
the  plants  may  be  grown  at  the  surface  just  as  onions  are, 
except  for  the  greater  distance  the  plant  requires  to  de- 
velop. The  leeks  chiefly  grown  in  California  are  the  Large 
American  Flag,  of  good,  uniform  size,  and  strong  growth ; 
the  Musselburgh,  short,  thick  stem  and  large,  broad  leaves ; 
the  Large  Rouen,  a  large,  strong  variety,  and  the  Mon- 
strous Caratan,  with  dark-colored  foliage. 

GARLIC. 
What  is  said  of  the  restricted  local  use  of  the  leek  ap- 


SEVERAL  NEAR  ONIONS.  303 

plies  also  to  the  garlic.  It  is  grown  with  about  the  same 
cultivation  as  the  onion,  and  the  planting  season  is  of  the 
same  duration.  The  method  is  by  planting  the  bulblets, 
or  * '  cloves, ' '  taken  out  of  the  silvery  skin  which  covers  the 
bunch,  and  planted  like  onion  sets  about  six  inches  apart 
in  rows  one  foot  distant  from  each  other.  It  may  also  be 
grown  by  planting  whole  cases  of  sets  one  foot  apart  in 
the  rows.  The  planting  should  be  rather  shallow  and  the 
soil  should  be  light  and  well  cultivated  to  allow  the  free 
expansion  of  the  bulb. 

CHIVES. 

These  are  small  plants,  whose  leaves  have  the  onion 
flavor  desired  in  cookery.  They  are  grown  from  the  small 
bulbs,  and  from  thick  clumps  or  an  edging  for  permanent 
garden  beds.  The  leaves  are  shorn  off  whenever  desired, 
and  are  most  excellent  for  giving  a  mild  onion  flavor  to 
salads  and  soups. 

CIBOULE. 

Another  plant  used  like  chives,  but  of  taller  growth,  is 
the  Welch  onion,  or  ciboule.  It  makes  no  bulb,  but  seeds 
freely,  and  the  plant  develops  rapidly  to  cutting  condi- 
tion. The  cultivation  is  the  same  as  of  onions  grown  from 
seed. 

SHALLOT. 

Both  the  bulbs  and  leaves  of  this  plant  are  used  to  give 
the  onion  flavor  in  cookery.  Propagation  is  the  same  as 
that  of  chives,  by  means  of  the  small  bulbs,  and  the  cul- 
ture is  the  same  as  of  onions  grown  from  sets. 


CHAPTER  XXVI. 
PEAS. 

The  Garden  Pea. — Pisum  sativum. 

French,  pois  a  ecosser;  German,  schal-erbsen ;  Dutch, 
doperwten ;  Danish,  skaloerte ;  Italian,  piselli  da  sgranare ; 
Spanish,  guisantes  para  desgranar;  Portuguese,  ervilhas 
de  grao. 

The  Lentil. — Lens  esculenta. 

French,  lentille;  German,  linse;  Dutch,  linze;  Danish, 
lindse;  Italian,  lente;  Spanish,  lenteja;  Portuguese,  len- 
tilha. 

The  Garbanzo  or  Chick  Pea. — Cicer  arietinum. 

French,  pois  chiche ;  German,  kieher-erbse ;  Italian,  cece ; 
Spanish,  garbanzos;  Portuguese,  chicaro. 

Dry  heat  is  offensive  to  the  pea,  and  its  occurrence  im- 
poses the  chief  limitation  to  the  success  of  this  vegetable 
in  California.  The  escape  from  this  limitation  consists  in 
winter  growth,  as  far  as  practicable,  and  in  recourse  to 
the  coast  region  where  atmospheric  humidity  is  greatest 
and  summer  heat  least.  The  pea  is  very  hardy  against 
frost,  and  this  advantage  goes  far  to  compensate  for  its 
susceptibility  to  drought,  because  it  enables  it  to  thrive  in 
the  winter  in  the  very  places  where  it  perishes  in  summer. 
The  obvious  deduction  is  that  in  regions  dependent  upon 
rainfall  the  garden  planting  of  the  pea  must  be  as  early  in 
the  fall  as  adequate  moisture  has  reached  the  soil,  and  in 
regions  where  irrigation  is  available,  it  is  desirable  that 
the  start  should  be  made  in  advance  of  rainfall  for  the 
earliest  product,  and  that  other  plantings  follow  for  a  suc- 
cession, until  it  is  ascertained  what  is  the  latest  date  of 
sowing  which  will  reach  satisfactory  maturity.  If  prac- 
tice proceed  upon  this  basis,  the  pea  will  be  seen  to  have 


CONDITIONS  FOR  PEA  GROWING.  305 

a  much  longer  season  than  in  wintry  climates,  although, 
in  some  places,  midsummer  growth  is  impracticable.  Most 
failures  to  realize  this  satisfaction  with  the  pea  are  due 
to  late  planting  and  failure  to  recognize  that,  in  many 
parts  of  the  State,  the  pea  is  a  winter  and  not  a  summer 
plant. 

In  the  growth  of  peas  in  the  field  most  disappointments 
have  followed  the  same  misapprehension,  and  the  interior 
has  conceded  a  monopoly  of  pea  conditions  to  the  coast 
when  the  former  can  grow  large  amounts  of  forage,  at 
least,  by  taking  a  different  time  of  the  year  for  it.  For- 
tunately, this  fact  is  coming  to  be  better  understood,  and 
large  fields  of  peas  are  now  grown  as  winter  feed  for 
dairy  cows  and  in  the  orchard  to  be  plowed  under  early 
in  the  spring  for  green  manuring,  where  only  recently  the 
pea  was  supposed  to  be  unsuited  to  the  climate.  These 
remarks  apply  to  the  true  pea,  not  to  the  so-called  "cow- 
pea,  ' '  which  really  belongs  to  the  bean  family  and  is  very 
susceptible  to  frost  injury. 

Soils  and  Situations  for  the  Pea. — The  pea  succeeds  on 
a  wide  variety  of  soils — a  good,  rich  loam  of  sufficient  re- 
tentiveness  being  the  ideal.  Where  it  is  winter-grown, 
with  moderate  heat  and  ample  moisture,  lighter  soils  can 
be  successfully  used,  because  they  are  warmer  and  dispose 
of  the  surplus  water  more  readily.  Though  the  pea  with- 
stands much  frost,  it  needs  warmth  for  rapid  advance- 
ment, and  for  this  reason  the  earliest  peas,  as,  for  ex- 
ample, peas  for  Christmas  from  September  sowing,  are 
grown  where  there  is  little  frost,  and  hillsides  are  often 
used  to  escape  the  heavier  frosts  of  the  valley  below.  In 
moist  bottom  lands  in  the  interior,  and  on  uplands  near  the 
coast,  peas  naturally  thrive  much  later  in  the  season  than 
on  the  interior  plains  and  hillsides,  and  the  latest  green 
peas  are  grown  in  the  moist  lands  of  the  coast  valleys, 
moisture  being  retained  by  cultivation  or  supplied  by  ir- 
rigation, according  to  local  conditions.  By  using  these 
different  situations  green  peas  are  available  for  city  trade 
nearly  the  entire  year. 


306  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES. 

Culture. — From  what  has  been  said  it  may  be  inferred 
that  the  pea  at  different  times  of  the  year  is  to  be  handled 
with  all  the  arts  for  releasing  or  retaining  moisture,  which 
are  described  in  the  chapters  on  the  planting  season,  drain- 
age and  cultivation.  The  reader  should  study  these,  and 
choose  the  methods  adapted  to  the  soil  and  time  of  the 
year  with  which  he  expects  to  operate.  Depth  of  plant- 
ing is  also  governed  by  these  factors,  as  described  in  the 
chapter  on  propagation.  The  pea  will  thrive  with  deep 
covering,  according  to  the  soil  and  moisture — even  to 
covering  the  seed  in  a  plow  furrow  in  a  light  soil — but 
in  a  heavier  soil,  with  assurance  of  moisture,  a  single  inch 
of  depth  may  best  favor  its  growth.  Deep  working  of  the 
soil  is  also,  as  a  rule,  acceptable  to  the  pea  and  where  the 
crop  is  to  come  late  and  to  endure  a  measure  of  heat  and 
drought,  deep  working  in  preparation  and  fine  surface 
cultivation,  as  late  as  feasible  without  injury  to  the  vines, 
is  necessary.  But,  on  the  other  hand,  for  fall  and  winter 
growth  in  some  situations  and  soils,  such  thorough  work 
may  not  be  called  for.  For  winter,  too,  it  is  not  desirable 
that  the  surface  should  be  worked  to  a  fine  mulch ;  surplus 
water  is  relieved  by  evaporation  and  the  surface  is  pre- 
vented from  crusting,  if  a  coarser  condition  is  retained. 
The  pea  plant  gives  every  possible  advantage  "to  the 
grower ;  it  is  strong  growing  and  hardy,  and  it  has  a  large 
seed  which  makes  a  vigorous  shoot.  If  the  grower  can 
give  it  escape  from  dry  heat  it  will  serve  him  well  both  in 
garden  and  field. 

It  should  be  remembered,  however,  that  the  pea  needs 
a  certain  amount  of  heat,  though  it  be  small,  and  there  is 
nothing  gained  by  sowing  in  cold,  wet  ground.  In  small, 
frosty  valleys  with  heavy  rainfall,  sowing  should  often 
be  delayed  until  the  ground  is  warmed  in  February, 
though  on  slopes  above  such  valleys  much  earlier  work 
can  often  be  done  satisfactorily.  The  fitness  of  certain 
varieties  for  seasonal  conditions  will  be  considered  pres- 
ently. 

For  the  Earliest  Peas. — The  earliest  peas,  counting  the 


EARLY  AND  LATE  PEAS.  307 

first  of  July  as  the  beginning  of  the  California  season,  are 
in  picking  condition  in  December,  from  seed  sown  in  Aug- 
ust and  September.  Irrigate  the  land  thoroughly,  plow 
well,  harrow,  and  sow  the  seed  with  a  drill  as  nearly  as 
practicable  an  inch  apart  in  rows  two  and  a  half  feet  dis- 
tant. Another  way  is  to  open  a  shallow  furrow  with  a 
single  plow,  scatter  the  seed  in  the  furrow,  and  cover  with 
a  cultivator,  covering  the  seed  and  stirring  the  space  be- 
tween the  rows.  In  growing  peas  on  hillsides  for  very 
early  market,  the  foreigners,  who  are  the  chief  growers, 
depend  much  upon  hand  work  and  bring  the  rows  nearer 
together.  Irrigation  must  be  used  from  time  to  time  to 
keep  the  soil  from  drying  until  the  rains  come  and  subse- 
quently if  the  rains  are  light.  The  plants  must  be  pushed 
to  bring  well-filled  pods  and  continual  moisture  is  essen- 
tial. Cultivation,  to  keep  the  soil  clean  and  mellow,  is 
necessary.  A  light  harrow  can  be  safely  used  with  peas 
even  after  the  plants  appear.  After  this  the  free  use  of 
the  cultivator  will  be  found  profitable. 

Later  Sowing. — Whether  it  will  be  profitable  to  arrange 
for  a  succession  of  peas  in  the  early  winter  depends  upon 
the  local  soil  and  climate.  On  light  soils  and  in  regions 
of  moderate  rainfall  and  frost  it  is  quite  feasible,  but  in 
most  regions  December  and  January  bring  the  lowest 
temperatures  and  the  longest  rainstorms  of  the  year,  and 
the  ground  is  out  of  condition.  The  advent  of  February 
changes  things  enough  to  meet  the  requirements  of  the 
pea,  and  then  the  sowing  for  the  spring  and  summer  suc- 
cession may  begin.  At  the  first  ridge  or  raised  bed 
method  will  give  safety  against  excessive  water,  but  later 
sowings  should  be  made  for  flat  culture  on  soil  most  thor- 
oughly prepared  and  well  cultivated  afterward. 

Field  Growth. — Where  peas  are  sown  for  forage  or  for 
a  crop  of  dry  peas,  sowing  can  be  done  broadcast  on  land 
which  has  been  previously  plowed  and  harrowed,  and 
then  the  seed  is  covered  with  a  shallow  cross-plowing  of 
the  whole  field.  If  the  soil  is  friable  and  a  good  condi- 
tion of  moisture,  this  leaves  the  surface  well  loosened  and 


308  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES. 

able  to  receive  considerable  rain  without  baking.  This 
method  answers  well  on  light  soils  in  the  interior  early 
winter,  and  the  moist  condition  of  the  upper  coast  valleys 
is  also  satisfactory.  In  the  upper  coast  valleys  peas  can 
be  safely  sown  as  late  as  May  for  summer  crop  and  forage. 
Wherever  heat  or  drouth  and  hard  ground  are  likely  to 
be  encountered  before  the  vines  cover  the  ground,  drill 
culture  and  cultivation  are  better. 

Peas  in  the  Orchard.— It  has  already  been  mentioned 
that  the  winter  growth  of  peas  in  the  orchard  for  plowing 
under  for  green  manure,  is  gaining  popularity  in  this 
State.  The  pea  has  the  power  of  appropriating  atmos- 
pheric nitrogen  and  its  growth  in  the  winter  in  the 
warmer  parts  of  the  State  may  be  effected  with  little  loss 
of  moisture  to  the  trees.  Growing  the  pea  crop  in  the 
orchard  to  be"  gathered  green  for  canners'  use  has  also 
been  successfully  done  in  this  State,  where  the  trees  are 
small.  The  pea  is  probably  one  of  the  least  injurious  of 
the  inter-cultures,  and  under  certain  conditions  may  be 
of  actual  benefit  to  the  trees.  For  this  purpose  the  crop 
should  be  gathered  and  the  green  vine  plowed  in  as  early 
as  possible. 

No  Support  for  Peas. — Peas  are  chiefly  grown  as  a  pros- 
trate crop  in  California,  both  in  garden  and  field.  The 
preference  is  for  the  dwarf  or  medium  high  kinds  and 
they  are  allowed  to  stand  or  mat  down  as  they  see  fit.  It 
better  suits  a  climate  where  reclining  on  the  ground  very 
rarely  induces  mildew  and  where  the  covering  of  the 
ground  assists  in  maintaining  the  coolness  and  moisture 
of  soil  which  delights  the  pea. 

Varieties. — Of  the  two  main  divisions  of  pea  varieties, 
the  smooth  and  the  wrinkled  skins,  the  smooth  are  the 
more  hardy  and  can  be  safely  grown  early.  The  smooth 
pea  may  resist  decay  and  grow  where  the  wrinkled  seed 
will  perish.  And  yet  the  wrinkled  pea  is  so  popular  that 
wrinkled  varieties  have  almost  excluded  the  smooth  kinds. 

Alaska :  tall  growing,  small  smooth  pea ;  pod  short,  well 
filled ;  very  early. 


VARIETIES  OF  PEAS.  309 

American  Wonder:  dwarf,  wrinkled,  very  compact 
growth,  productive  and  early,  fine  quality,  very  sweet ;  the 
leading  early  pea  in  California. 

McLean 's  Little  Gem :  dwarf,  wrinkled,  very  early,  pro- 
ductive, rich  and  sweet. 

Nott's  Excelsior:  resembles  American  Wonder;  larger 
growing  and  more  productive;  fine  quality,  long  bearing 
period,  excellent  home  garden  pea. 

Premium  Gem :  an  improved  Little  Gem  with  larger 
pods. 

Yorkshire  Hero  (also  called  Alameda  Sweet)  :  later  than 
dwarf  varieties ;  most  popular  in  all  parts  of  the  State  for 
main  crop ;  strong  grower,  with  branching  habit ;  large 
pods  well  filled  with  large,  wrinkled  peas ;  keeps  in  con- 
dition on  vine  longer  than  other  varieties. 

Pride  of  Cahuenga  (renamed  in  southern  California, 
where  it  has  been  grown  for  20  years)  :  branches  freely 
and  very  productive  and  pods  large ;  peas  large  and  finely 
flavored. 

Stratagem:  strong  grower,  semi  dwarf,  with  large, 
showy  pods ;  peas  large  and  of  good  flavor ;  very  popular 
with  growers  and  the  trade ;  a  late  variety. 

Champion  of  England :  well-known  late  variety,  largely 
used  by  canners;  rich,  high  quality. 

Telephone :  late,  very  productive,  large  pods ;  peas 
sugary ;  largely  grown  both  for  market  and  home  use. 

Edible  Pod  or  Sugar  Peas. — Although  California  inter- 
est is  almost  wholly  centered  in  the  shelling  varieties  of 
peas,  there  has  recently  been  some  attention  paid  in  home 
gardens  to  the  edible  pod  varieties  which  are  used  in  the 
kitchen  as  are  string  or  snap  beans.  They  are  available 
because  of  their  hardiness  at  times  of  the  year  when  string 
beans  can  only  be  had  from  frostless  regions  if  at  all. 
Their  culture  is  the  same  as  for  other  kinds  of  peas. 

LENTILS  AND  CHICK  PEAS. 

Though  of  another  botanical  genus,  lentils  are  best 
classed  with  peas.  They  are  quite  hardy  and  make  a  good 


310  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES. 

winter  growth.  They  may  be  used  green  as  peas  are,  but 
are  hardly  as  desirable.  The  dry  seeds  are  used  in  soups, 
stews,  etc.  Lentils  are  rarely  seen  in  California,  probably 
because  peas  are  preferred,  not  only  because  of  flavor,  but 
because  of  more  easy  handling.  The  lentil  bears  but  two 
seeds  in  a  pod.  Owing  to  their  early  winter  growth  they 
may  come  into  use  here  for  cattle  food  as  in  Europe. 

Another  two-seeded  pod  bearer  is  the  garbanzo  or  chick 
pea,  which  is  a  hairy  plant  of  the  vetch  family.  Its  uses 
are  like  those  of  lentils,  but  it  has  also  served  widely  as  a 
coffee  substitute.  Its  culture  is  easy,  like  the  pea  in 
method,  but  the  product  is  always  used  dry  or  mature. 
The  plant  is  more  hardy  against  drouth  than  the  peas.  Its 
production  in  California  is  small,  but  seems  to  be  in- 
creasing. 


CHAPTER  XXVII. 
PEPPERS. 

Chile  Pepper. — Capsicum  annuum. 

French,  piment;  German,  pfeffer;  Dutch,  Spaansche, 
peper ;  Italian,  peperone ;  Spanish,  pimiento ;  Portuguese, 
pimento. 

The  settlement  of  California  by  people  of  Spanish  birth 
or  descent  naturally  brought  the  pepper  into  early  promi- 
nence in  this  State,  and  the  considerable  fraction  of  our 
population  which  now  traces  to  south  of  Europe  nations 
serves  to  hold  the  plant  in  popularity.  American  citizens 
have  also  wide  liking  for  the  pepper  in  some  of  its  uses, 
and  the  result  is  large  local  demand  for  the  capsules  both 
in  green  and  mature  states.  There  is  this  main  division 
in  the  demand — the  northern  races  prefer  the  large,  green, 
mild  varieties;  the  southern  races  chiefly  use  that  which  is 
ripe,  red,  and  fiery  in  flavor.  But  of  course  this  distinction 
is  not  to  be  pushed  too  far.  Each  kind  has  its  uses  which 
are  observed  by  all  consumers.  In  the  California  markets 
the  two  kinds  or  conditions  stand  side  by  side  in  such 
quantities  as  to  make  them  conspicuous. 

Though  the  pepper  is  usually  an  annual,  it  carries  its 
profitable  productive  life  into  the  second  year  in  the 
thermal  regions  of  the  State.  The  stem  has  a  tendency 
to  become  woody  and  after  a  period  of  partial  dormancy, 
it  sends  out  new  shoots  and  bears  its  second  crop.  This 
cannot,  however,  be  expected  in  a  frosty  location. 

Garden  Culture. — Peppers  are  usually  grown  from 
plants  started  early  by  artificial  heat  in  the  same  manner 
indicated  for  egg-plant.  Planting  out  should  be  done 
after  danger  of  frost  is  over  and  the  soil  is  well  warmed 
by  the  sun.  Later  plants  may  be  grown  by  planting  the 


312  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES. 

seed  in  drills  in  the  open  ground,  thinning  the  plants 
afterward  to  suitable  distance.  Moisture  should  be 
evenly  maintained  by  cultivation  or  irrigation  as  needed, 
but  excessive  water  is  undesirable  at  all  times  from  the 
seed  sowing  onward.  The  plants  will  endure  heat  and 
drouth,  but  the  fruiting  is  deficient  in  size  and  quantity, 
and  for  the  best  success,  especially  with  the  large  varie- 
ties, rich,  light  soil,  well  cultivated  and  adequately  moist, 
is  a  requisite.  The  distance  between  the  plants  depends 
upon  method  of  cultivation,  nl  the  hand-worked  garden, 
the  plants  may  be  set  a  foot  apart  in  rows,  eighteen  inches 
distant  from  each  other,  but  usually  greater  distance  is 
better,  and  for  horse  work  the  rows  should  be  two  or  three 
feet  apart. 

Field  Culture. — Field  culture  for  canning  and  for  the 
trade  in  dried  peppers  is  pursued  on  a  large  scale  in 
southern  California,  especially  in  Orange  county,  on  the 
deep  loams  of  the  gentle  slope  oceanward.  An  outline  of 
methods  is  prepared  from  data  furnished  by  Mr.  Allan 
Knapp  of  Anaheim,  who  is  widely  acquainted  with  local 
experience  in  the  pepper  district. 

Seed. — It  is  exceedingly  important  to  have  a  good  type 
of  plant,  and  this  can  be  secured  by  selecting  pods  in  the 
field,  to  furnish  seed  for  the  following  year,  from  low 
bushy  vines  full  of  pods  of  medium  length.  A  tall  bush 
will  not  produce  as  many  pods  and  is  more  liable  to  be 
broken  by  strong  winds  when  loaded  with  fruit.  Besides 
the  end  of  the  pods  from  a  low  plant  will  rest  on  the 
ground,  and  in  that  position  they  will  prop  up  the 
branches,  providing  you  keep  crowding  a  little  earth  to 
the  row  at  each  cultivation,  as  will  be  described  later. 

When  these  seed  pods  are  gathered  put  them  on  a  string 
and  hang  up  to  dry  against  the  south  end  of  a  building. 
Do  not  put  them  into  the  evaporator  when  hotter  than 
110  to  115°.  They  may  stand  more  heat,  but  perhaps  only 
50%  of  the  seed  may  germinate  quickly,  and  the  other  half 
may  delay  a  week  longer  than  those  dried  in  the  sun; 
neither  will  it  make  so  strong  a  plant. 


PLANTING  OF  PEPPERS.  313 

Growing  Seedlings. — Select  a  location  for  the  seed  bed 
where  good  drainage  may  be  had.  Sandy  soil  is  best,  but 
not  so  poor  that  it  contains  no  plant  food  to  nourish  the 
young  plant.  Plow  and  level  the  plot,  harrowing  or  raking 
with  a  hand  rake,  as  only  a  small  piece  of  land  is  used; 
sow  seed  about  March  15  in  rows  three  inches  apart,  cover- 
ing one-quarter  of  an  inch.  On  this  spread  one-quarter 
inch  with  sand.  Start  your  seed  beside  a  large  tree,  if 
you  have  one,  and  you  will  have  fair  success.  The  tree 
will  drain  your  land.  If  the  young  plants  begin  to  die  by 
"damping  off,"  take  a  trowel  and  dig  out  the  affected 
spots  and  throw  them  away.  The  plants  should  have  five 
or  six  leaves  on  before  transplanting  commences.  Wet 
the  soil  of  the  seed  bed  thoroughly  before  lifting  the 
plants,  as  the  roots  are  damaged  less. 

Field  Planting. — Plow  the  field  deeply  early  in  the  win- 
ter and  keep  down  weeds  by  shallow  cultivation  until 
planting  time,  when  danger  of  frost  is  passed.  The  chile 
plant  is  very  sensitive  to  cold'.  May  1  is  a  good  time  for 
planting.  Mark  fields  off  in  rows  4%  feet  apart  and  set 
2%  feet  apart  in  rows.  Should  the  weather  be  dry  and 
irrigation  necessary  plow  a  furrow  beside  each  mark  and 
run  water  in  these  furrows  before  and  after  planting,  and 
if  the  weather  be  very  hot  two  or  three  irrigations  may 
be  necessary  to  start  plants.  Always  allow  24  hours  after 
irrigating  before  plants  are  set,  unless  soil  is  very  sandy. 
Then  work  may  commence  sooner. 

When  through  with  the  irrigation  furrows,  plow  back 
and  cultivate  the  land  until  level  as  before.  Keep  soil  in 
good  growing  condition  always.  When  plants  are  12  to 
15  inches  high  use  a  ridger  (such  as  is  used  in  raising 
levees  for  irrigation  checks)  with  plenty  of  space  open 
behind  and  straddle  each  row,  thus  drawing  the  earth  to 
each  side  of  plant  and  giving  it  support.  Water  may  be 
run  down  these  rows  at  this  time.  As  plants  grow  make 
the  ridge  wider  with  a  crowder  run  in  between  each  row. 
This  ridge  will  keep  plants  from  breaking  down  so  readily 
when  laden  with  fruit,  and  when  fruit  strikes  the  ground 


314  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES. 

it  will  not  decay  so  readily  because  the  ridge  will  be  dry. 
Do  not  make  your  first  ridging  too  high,  and  do  not  do 
the  work  too  late;  if  so,  the  first  setting  will  be  greatly 
injured  by  pushing  the  earth  against  the  fruit,  thus  leav- 
ing no  room  for  it  to  grow,  and  many  pods  will  be  curly 
and  eaten  by  bugs. 

Gathering  and  Curing. — During  September  the  fruit  will 
begin  to  ripen,  the  time  of  ripening  depending  upon  the 
soil  and  the  care  of  the  crop.  In  sandy  soil  the  fruit  will 
ripen  quicker  than  in  deep  sediment.  If  the  plants  lack 
moisture  they  will  ripen  much  faster,  which  looks  well, 
but  they  should  be  kept  green  as  long  as  possible.  It 
pays  better  in  the  end. 

The  crop  should  be  picked  as  each  setting  ripens;  go 
over  the  field  three  or  four  times.  A  pod  should  be  left 
on  the  vine  until  of  a  dark  red  and  it  has  lost  its  hardness, 
being  somewhat  pliable.  Have  the  crop  gathered  in  large 
baskets,  but  they  should  be  hauled  in  boxes  rather  than 
sacks,  as  they  are  less  liable  to  be  bruised,  and  a  bruised 
pod  is  liable  to  decay  unless  dried  at  once.  If  peppers 
are  to  be  dried  on  strings,  have  them  dumped  on  a  table 
or  on  the  ground,  as  you  prefer.  Allow  24  to  48  hours  for 
stems  to  wilt  after  gathering  before  they  are  put  on  the 
string.  This  work  is  done  by  running  a  twine  through 
the  stem  of  each  chile,  the  twine  to  be  10%  to  11  feet,  and 
same  may  be  hung  on  a  scaffold  to  dry  or  put  into  espe- 
cially made  evaporators.  Some  growers  report  favorably 
on  drying  their  crop  on  trays  instead  of  on  twine.  During 
recent  years  most  of  the  drying  has  been  done  in  evapor- 
ators, which  js  accomplished  by  artificial  heat  in  six  or 
eight  days. 

Soils  for  the  Commercial  Crop. — Although  peppers  can 
be  successfully  grown  in  any  good  garden  soil,  it  is  im- 
portant for  the  field  crop  to  choose  deep,  rich,  sandy  loam, 
or  sediment  soil,  which  will  not  bake  very  rapidly.  The 
young  plants  must  be  set  in  damp  soil  and  if  land  should 
easily  bake  it  will  become  hard  and  will  dry  out  more 
readily  about  the  young  plant  and  the  growth  will  be  very 


VARIETIES  OF  PEPPERS.  315 

slow.  It  is  not  wise  to  grow  more  than  two  crops  of  pep- 
pers on  even  the  best  of  soils  without  fertilizing  very 
liberally.  Cover  crops  plowed  under  are  found  very 
profitable. 

Varieties. — The  varieties  chiefly  grown  for  home  use  and 
marketing  green  are  Large  Bell  or  Bull-nose,  an  early 
variety  of  mild  flavor,  fruit  large,  slightly  tapering  and 
generally  terminating  in  four  obtuse,  cone-like  points.  It 
is  a  favorite  sort,  both  for  pickling  and  for  table  use. 
Sweet  mountain  is  another  popular  variety  similar  to  the 
foregoing,  but  larger  and  milder  in  flavor,  and  Chinese 
Giant  is  an  immense  pepper,  often  twice  as  large  as  Large 
Bell. 

The  standard  for  hot  pepper  and  for  the  dried  crop  is 
the  Mexican  chile,  long,  narrow  pods  on  a  low-growing, 
narrow-leaved  plant.  One  type  is  a  very  dark,  thick- 
meated,  cone-shaped  chile,  growing  from  4  to  6  inches 
long,  which  is  gaining  ground ;  while  the  Long  Red,  or 
Anaheim  Chile,  having  pods  from  6  to  10  inches  long,  is 
the  best  known.  The  plant  is  strong  and  holds  its  fruit 
up  well  and  is  very  productive.  There  is  also  a  longer 
variety  with  pods  up  to  fourteen  inches  in  length  which, 
however,  is  claimed  to  be  less  productive  and  light  when 
dried,  though  the  flesh  is  quite  thick  when  green. 


CHAPTER  XXVITI. 
POTATOES. 

The  Potato. — Solanum  tuberosum. 

French,  pomme  de  terre;  German,  kartoffel;  Dutch, 
aardappel;  Danish,  jordepeeren;  Italian,  patata;  Spanish 
and  Portuguese,  patatas. 

The  Sweet  Potato. — Convolvulus  batatas. 

French,  patate  douce ;  Italian,  patata ;  Spanish  and 
Portuguese,  batata. 

Potatoes  may  be  grown  everywhere  in  California  with- 
out irrigation,  except  on  strictly  arid  plains  and  deserts, 
and  it  needs  but  slight  watering  to  enable  the  light  but 
rich  soils  of  the  arid  regions  to  surpass  the  naturally  moist 
lands  both  in  the  size  and  quality  of  their  produce.  Some 
of  the  grandest  potatoes  every  grown  in  the  State  have 
been  taken  from  light,  warm  soils  whose  natural  growth 
was  sagebrush  and  other  desert  flora.  The  superiority  of 
the  higher,  lighter  lands,  either  with  adequate  rainfall  or 
irrigation,  to  the  moist  lowlands  of  the  interior  river  bot- 
toms or  the  coast  valleys,  has  been  clearly  recognized 
during  recent  years.  In  the  earlier  days,  the  coast  and 
the  interior  river  bottoms  were  supposed  to  be  par  ex- 
cellence the  potato  regions,  and  their  products  were  trans- 
ported great  distances  to  interior  uplands  which  were 
thought  to  be  unfit  for  the  plant.  Now  the  choicest  po- 
tatoes are  grown  in  these  places  and  the  production  in 
the  older  regions  has  decreased,  though  the  potato  still 
constitutes  an  important  crop.  The  present  situation  is 
that  the  potato  may  be  seen  everywhere  from  the  skirts 
of  the  cliffs  which  look  down  upon  the  ocean,  along  the 
bottoms  and  sides  of  the  coast  valleys,  on  the  reclaimed 
lands  and  benches  of  the  great  interior  rivers,  up  the 


REQUIREMENTS  OF  POTATOES.  317 

slopes  of  the  foothills  and  in  the  mountain  valleys  of  the 
Sierra  Nevada  and  out  beyond,  upon  the  stretches  of  sage- 
brush, wherever  water  can  be  had  to  turn  the  desert  into 
a  garden.  California  has  capacity  for  a  potato  produc- 
tion beyond  the  ability  of  any  available  market  to  handle, 
and  though  a  few  years  ago  it  seemed  likely  that  our  cli- 
matic advantages  in  early  production  would  give  us  com- 
mand of  distant  consumption  at  certain  times  of  the  year, 
it  has  since  been  shown  that  much  less  can  be  profitably 
done  in  this  direction  than  was  anticipated.  There  have 
been  in  some  years  very  large  shipments  at  reduced  freight 
rates  when  the  Eastern  production  was  deficient,  but  the 
potato  is  ordinarily  too  cheap  an  article  to  endure  the  cost 
of  long  transportation.  The  California  potato  product 
sometimes  exceeds  3,000,000  sacks  per  year. 

Situations. — Though,  as  has  been  stated,  the  potato 
grows  wherever  adequate  moisture  is  assured,  there  is 
much  difference  in  the  times  of  the  year  at  which  maturity 
is  attained.  Though  the  potato  is  a  tender  plant  it  will 
endure  light  frosts,  nor  does  it  always  yield  its  life  when 
the  frost  blights  the  foliage.  Dormant  buds  lower  on  the 
stem  develop  into  a  new  top  growth.  It  is,  therefore,  pos- 
sible to  secure  fall  and  even  winter  growth  in  places  where 
a  strictly  tender  plant  like  the  bean  would  perish.  Where 
only  light  frosts  occur  and  where  irrigation  is  provided  to 
supplement  rainfall,  it  is  possible  to  have  new  potatoes  all 
the  year  and  to  bring  to  edible  condition  three  crops  suc- 
cessively on  the  same  ground  withing  a  twelve  month, 
though  it  is,  of  'course,  better  to  let  the  potato  take  its 
place  in  a  rotation. 

New  Potatoes. — The  first  new  potatoes  from  a  California 
point  of  view,  would  be  the  crop  that  comes  in  the  autumn 
with  the  first  green  peas — counting  July  1  as  the  begin- 
ning of  the  garden  year.  In  fact  the  first  potatoes  and 
peas  come  from  the  same  localities.  They  make  their 
growth  in  the  fall  from  planting  on  ground  well  soaked  by 
irrigation  in  July  and  August.  The  regions  for  this  work 
are  those  in  which  fall  frosts  are  light  or  do  not  occur  at 


318  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES. 

all — the  thermal  belts  at  different  elevations  on  the  hill- 
sides both  on  the  Coast  Range  and  the  Sierra  Nevada,  also 
on  the  warm  interior  plains,  but  not  usually  on  the  river 
bottoms  nor  on  the  low  places  in  small  valleys.  Owing, 
however,  to  the  partial  resistance  to  frost  of  the  potato, 
there  are  very  wide  areas  both  on  the  coast  and  in  the  in- 
terior of  central  and  southern  California,  where  the  fall 
growth  of  potatoes  is  safe  and  worth  wider  attention  than 
is  given  to  it  by  home  gardeners.  Where  irrigation  may 
be  had  to  start  the  seed  well  the  fall  rains  usually  carry  on 
the  growth. 

Planting  for  what  may  be  called  the  second  run  of  new 
potatoes  requires  stricter  attention  to  thermal  conditions. 
This  crop  must  be  growing  in  December  and  January, 
which  are  our  months  of  heaviest  frosts  and  rainfall  usu- 
ally. Strictly  thermal  belts,  to  be  found  at  different  ele- 
vations on  hillsides,  generally  within  the  reach  of  ocean 
influences  in  the  south  half  of  the  California  coast  line, 
but  also  here  and  there  on  the  hillsides  of  the  interior, 
favor  the  growth  of  the  potato  all  through  the  winter,  if 
the  soil  be  light  and  kept  warm  by  free  escape  of  surplus 
water  and  abundant  winter  sunshine. 

The  third  run  of  new  potatoes  is  secured  by  the  plant- 
ing of  the  early  varieties  as  soon  as  possible  after  the 
heaviest  frosts  of  the  locality  are  over,  and  the  soil  be- 
comes warm  enough  to  push  growth.  This  is  the  main  po- 
tato planting  season  of  California,  and  covers  a  wide  range 
of  dates,  beginning  with  January  on  light,  well-drained 
soils  at  the  south  to  get  the  earliest  new  potatoes  for  East- 
ern shipment  in  May ;  proceeding  in  February,  not  only  in 
the  south,  but  on  warm  uplands  all  through  the  central 
portion  of  the  State,  and  continuing  with  planting  all 
through  March,  April,  and  May,  as  favoring  soil  condi- 
tions come  successively  to  the  upper  coast  valleys  and  the 
mountain  regions,  or  as  the  river  lowlands  and  reclaimed 
islands  are  drained  of  their  surplus  water.  In  fact  on  in- 
terior river  lands  planting  may  be  done  as  late  as  June  and 
July  and  the  crop  comes  on  rapidly  with  ample  heat  and 


ALWAYS  PLANTING  POTATOES.  319 

moisture  producing  the  first  new  potatoes  of  the  California 
garden  year,  as  previously  stated.  Thus  it  appears  that 
potato  planting  covers  the  entire  year,  and  that  while 
some  parts  of  the  State  are  digging  their  main  crop,  other 
parts  are  making  their  first  planting.  To  bring  the  matter 
nearer  to  a  point  it  may  be  said  that  a  man  in  the  central 
coast  region  may  be  eating  new  potatoes  from  his  hillside 
while  he  is  planting  his  main  crop  on  his  lowlands.  And 
yet  one  is  frequently  asked  to  answer  categorically  the 
question  :  ' '  When  do  you  plant  potatoes  in  California  ? ' ' 
Obviously  it  is  a  local  question,  to  be  learned  by  experi- 
ence, observation,  and  inquiry,  in  accordance  with  the 
general  conditions  outlined  in  the  chapter  on  the  planting 
season  in  California. 

In  connection,  however,  with  this  wide  liberty  in  plant- 
ing, taking  the  State  as  a  whole,  it  must  be  borne  in  mind 
that  local  requirements  are  sometimes  very  sharp  and  that 
planting  on  the  interior  plains  or  in  other  parts  of  the 
State  where  there  is  high  heat  and  drought,  or  the  soil  be- 
comes dry  even  with  moderate  heat,  planting  must  be  un- 
dertaken early  enough  to  allow  a  large  part  of  the  de- 
velopment of  the  plant  before  such  stress  comes.  Local 
failures  with  potatoes  may,  therefore,  be  often  attributed 
to  neglect  of  planting  as  soon  as  moisture  and  temperature 
conditions  favor  growth  in  each  locality. 

Soils. — Light,  rich  loams  are  best  for  potatoes  as  they 
favor  root  extension  and  expansion  of  tubers  and  they  are 
retentive  enough  to  hold  the  moderate  amount  of  moisture 
which  ministers  to  the  highest  quality.  Very  near  the 
coast  well-cultivated,  light  uplands  receive  atmospheric 
moisture. enough  to  sustain  the  deep  verdure  of  the  potato 
fields,  while  the  pastures  are  sere  and  yellow.  Summer 
growth  on  interior  plains  and  foothill  slopes  and  mountain 
plateaus  is  sustained  by  less  irrigation  than  many  other 
crops  require,  and  winter  growth,  whenever  feasible,  is 
best  on  light,  free  soils.  The  sediment  and  peat  of  the 
river  lands  are  also,  in  their  season,  light  and  warm.  But 
the  potato  insists  upon  adequate  moisture,  though  its  claim 

1    - 


320  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES. 

is  moderate.  It  cannot  give  satisfaction  unless  its  mois- 
ture requirements  are  met. 

Heavy  soils  in  garden  culture  can  be  greatly  improved 
as  described  in  the  chapter  on  Vegetable  Soils  of  Califor- 
nia. Early  and  deep  working  of  the  soil  and  the  plowing 
in  of  rotten  straw  and  compost  and  thorough  mixture  of 
these  materials  through  the  soil  will  have  marked  effect, 
but  heavy  land  potatoes  seldom  have  the  beauty  and  flavor 
of  the  product  of  the  light,  rich  loams. 

Culture. — Deep  working  of  the  soil  is  essential  in  pre- 
paration for  potatoes  as  has  already  been  urged  for  beets 
and  other  root  crops.  The  soil  must  be  made  mellow  to  a 
good  depth  by  at  least  two  plowings  and  kept  mellow  by 
subsequent  cultivation. 

Unless  the  seed  potatoes  are  old  and  show  active  eyes, 
they  should  be  exposed  to  sunlight  for  several  weeks  to 
advance  germination.  This  is  especially  the  case  when  the 
tubers  of  an  early  crop  are  used  for  later  planting  the 
same  season. 

All  proposed  methods  of  seed-cutting  have  been  tried  in 
California,  and  each  has  its  advocates.  When  the  soil  and 
season  favor,  excellent  crops  are  grown  from  small  po- 
tatoes used  as  seed,  but  generally  the  selected  fair-sized, 
merchantable  potatoes,  cut  into  quarters  lengthwise,  pro- 
duce best  results.  Cutting  should  not  be  done  too  long 
before  planting,  to  guard  against  too  great  drying  of  the 
seed.  Recently  machines  for  seed  potato  cutting  have 
been  used  with  satisfactory  results  by  large  planters.  Dis- 
tance between  pieces  in  the  furrow  depends  upon  the  ten- 
dency of  the  potatoes  to  grow  too  large.  This  is  often 
corrected  by  dropping  more  thickly.  The  range  is  from 
12  to  20  inches  usually. 

In  the  field  much  planting  is  done  with  the  plow  by 
dropping  the  ' '  seed ' '  in  every  third  or  fourth  furrow,  so  as 
to  bring  the  roots  about  three  feet  apart,  and  covering 
with  the  following  furrow.  Depth  of  planting  depends 
upon  season  and  soil  as  described  on  page  158,  the  same 
principles  governing  as  in  the  planting  of  seed.  After  the 


POTATO  GROWING.  321 

seed  is  plowed  in-  to  a  depth  of  four  to  eight  inches,  ac- 
cording to  season  and  soil,  a  thorough  cross-harrowing 
should  leave  the  field  in  good  shape.  On  light  soils  dis- 
posed to  be  dry,  a  light  rolling  may  be  beneficial.  As  soon 
as  the  plants  appear  harrowing  with  the  rows  mellows  the 
surface,  kills  small  weeds,  and  does  not  hurt  the  potatoes. 
Cultivation  between  the  rows  should  follow  when  the 
plants  are  up  about  three  inches,  and  the  surface  should 
be  kept  loose  until  the  plants  are  quite  high.  Good,  clean 
culture  is  the  rule  with  potatoes.  In  some  soils,  not  dis- 
posed to  dry  out  too  rapidly  nor  to  crust,  crops  are  often 
made  with  little  cultivation  after  weeds  stop  growing, 
especially  where  the  plant  has  the  benefit  of  coast  influ- 
ences, but  cultivation  for  moisture  retention,  where  needed, 
must  be  more  thorough. 

On  lands  subject  to  excess  of  moisture,  winter  growth  of 
potatoes  can  be  facilitated  by  the  ridge  planting  described 
in  the  chapter  on  Cultivation,  but  where  this  is  not  likely 
to  occur,  flat  culture  is  best,  both  in  winter  and  summer. 
Where  potatoes  are  to  be  irrigated  a  slight  moving  of  the 
soil  toward  the  row,  so  as  to  make  the  interspace  a  little 
hollow  to  carry  water,  is  admissable,  but  "hilling  up"  is 
unnecessary  and  dangerous.  It  usually  uncovers  the  firm 
soil  and  exposes  the  roots  to  too  great  heat  and  drought. 
It  is  also  likely  to  bring  the  tubers  within  reach  of  the 
moth  from  whose  eggs  come  the  potato  worms.  During 
the  latter  part  of  the  growth  the  tuber  should  be  well  cov- 
ered with  soil. 

Irrigation. — The  potato  should  be  kept  growing  thriftily 
from  start  to  finish.  If  growth  is  arrested  by  drought,  a 
new  growth  of  small  potatoes  is  apt  to  start  upon  renewal 
of  moisture,  to  the  detriment  of  the  crop.  The  aim  should 
be,  then,  to  keep  the  soil  adequately  moist  by  constant  cul- 
tivation or  by  irrigation  until  maturity  approaches.  Irri- 
gation is  best  done  by  running  small  streams  between  the 
rows,  the  planting  having  been  arranged  for  this  distribu- 
tion. As  already  stated,  excessive  irrigation  is  decidedly 
detrimental  to  the  quality  of  the  crop,  and  extra  effort 


322  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES. 

must  be  made  for  even  distribution  of  the  water.  To  allow 
low  places  to  fill  up  with  water  is  injurious  and  to  allow 
the  water  to  come  in  contact  with  the  plant  stems  is  also 
dangerous.  A  good,  thorough,  and  uniform  wetting  of  the 
soil  is  often  enough  to  finish  the  crop  and  it  is  seldom  de- 
sirable to  irrigate  after  the  bloom  appears.  Thorough  sur- 
face cultivation  should  quickly  follow  the  irrigation,  for 
the  reasons  stated  in  the  chapter  on  that  subject. 

Mulching. — For  the  last  35  years  the  practice  of  grow- 
ing potatoes  on  the  interior  plains  by  the  help  of  a  straw 
mulch  has  been  followed  to  some  extent.  It  has  recently 
been  proposed  at  the  east  as  a  new  method,  but  it  is  really 
quite  old.  The  seed  is  plowed  in  with  a  shallow  furrow 
so  as  to  cover  about  three  or  four  inches,  then  cover  the 
whole  surface  with  partly  decayed  straw  from  an  old 
stack  or  with  coarse  manure.  The  mulch  will  retain 
moisture  enough  to  mature  a  crop.  There  need  be  no  plow- 
ing, hoeing,  nor  weeding,  and  it  is  held  by  those  who  ad- 
vocate the  method,  that  the  labor  of  putting  on  straw  is 
compensated  for  the  saving  of  hoeing  and  weeding.  It  is 
also  a  safe  way  to  grow  early  potatoes  in  frosty  places  be- 
cause the  mulch  protects  the  dormant  buds  at  the  base  of 
the  stems  and  new  foliage  quickly  grows  if  the  old  is 
nipped  by  frost. 

Harvesting. — Potato  diggers  or  plows  are  used  to  some 
extent  in  California,  but  the  common  method  of  gathering 
is  by  means  of  a  long-handled  shovel  which  is  dexterously 
pushed  beneath  the  plant  so  that  all  the  tubers  are  thrown 
out  at  one  operation.  The  yield  of  potatoes  varies  from 
five  to  nine  tons  per  acre  on  good  soil,  properly  cultivated. 

Storing. — As  the  summer  and  fall  climate  of  California 
is  almost  rainless  and  the  frosts  seldom  severe  enough  to 
freeze  a  potato  in  a  sack,  the  tubers  are  generally  sacked 
and  piled  in  the  field  for  weeks  and  months.  This  advan- 
tage is  turned  by  careless  growers  into  a  disadvantage,  be- 
cause the  potatoes  are  often  seriously  injured  by  heat  and 
light  and  shriveled  by  dry,  hot  winds,  or  the  moth  places 
her  eggs  upon  them  and  wormy  and  worthless  potatoes  is 


POTATO  VARIETIES.  323 

the  result  of  her  work.  Potatoes  should  be  stored  in  a 
dark,  dry  place  and  protected  from  heat.  If  left  in  the 
field  for  a  time  the  piles  should  be  covered  with  boards, 
straw  or  canvass. 

Varieties. — As  with  other  vegetables,  California  has 
tried  many  kinds  of  potatoes  and  grows  very  few  on  a 
commercial  scale.  The  first  notable  varieties  were  brought 
from  Chili  and  Peru  in  very  early  days,  and  are  still 
grown  in  a  small  way  though  the  main  crop  is  now  made 
of  newer  kinds  because  in  some  localities  the  old  varieties 
ran  out  and  showed  great  susceptibility  to  blight.  The 
blight,  which  in  some  years  is  a  serious  menace  to  potato 
growing,  has  been  partially  escaped  by  the  introduction  of 
new  varieties  which  were  thrifty,  while  the  old  varieties 
on  adjacent  ground  perished.  For  this  reason  new  varie- 
ties should  be  tested  in  all  localities. 

The  potato  which  constitutes  most  of  the  market  crop  is 
the  Burbank  and  some  variations  of  it  are  locally  popular. 
For  mid-season  and  late  potatoes  nothing  compares  with 
the  Burbank.  For  early  potatoes  the  old  Early  Rose  still 
prevails  widely  though  others  are  encroaching  upon  it. 
Triumph  is  a  little  earlier  and  is  gaining  ground.  Early 
White  Rose,  Early  Clark  and  Early  Ohio  are  chiefly  popu- 
lar in  southern  California.  American  Wonder,  and  Snow- 
flake  and  Pearl  are  advancing  as  shipping  varieties  and 
Peerless  still  retains  favor  in  some  localities. 

Although  there  are  local  adaptations  of  different  va- 
rieties, the  character  of  the  potato  depends  more  upon 
local  conditions  of  soil  and  climate  than  upon  the  variety 
and  the  same  variety  from  different  localities  commands 
widely  different  prices  in  the  market. 

SWEET  POTATOES. 

The  sweet  potato  is  grown  in  nearly  all  parts  of  Cali- 
fornia where  rich,  sandy  loam,  suitably  moist,  can  be 
found.  Adequate  heat  is  essential  to  quality  and  the  upper 
coast  region  has  localities  which  are  deficient  in  this  re- 
spect, but  protection  from  coast  influences  renders  the  pro- 
duct satisfactory,  even  though  distance  from  the  ocean  be 


324  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES. 

not  great.  As  a  rule,  however,  the  crop  in  the  upper  half 
of  the  State  is  grown  in  the  interior  valleys,  while  at  the 
south,  both  the  coast  slopes  and  the  interior  valleys  yield 
a  fine  product.  Where  the  soil  is  rich,  warm,  and  free  and 
the  moisture  sufficient,  the  sweet  potato  attains  immense 
size  and  rightly  ranks  among  the  great  things  of  Cali- 
fornia. 

The  sweet  potato  is  a  strictly  tender  plant  and  a  heat- 
lover  as  well,  consequently  there  is  no  winter  planting, 
though  in  drier  parts  of  the  State,  free  from  frost,  there 
may  be  fall  plantings  which  carry  their  crop  well  into  the 
winter  and  for  more  than  half  the  year  fresh  potatoes  may 
be  taken  from  the  ground,  and  by  proper  storing  the  vege- 
table may  be  enjoyed  throughout  the  year. 

Preparation  of  the  Ground. — Planting  is  done  at  the  be- 
ginning of  the  frost-free  period  and  the  date  depends  upon 
the  locality.  Usually  it  comes  about  the  first  of  May,  but 
preparation  of  the  ground  should  begin  earlier  to  secure 
good  culture  and  moisture  retention  as  described  for  other 
root  crops.  In  regions  of  good  rainfall  moisture  enough 
can  thus  be  retained  to  make  the  crop,  or  at  least  start  it 
well.  On  dry  plains  it  may  be  necessary  to  thoroughly 
irrigate  in  the  spring  before  the  deep  plowing  with  which 
the  planting  is  to  be  made.  On  loose,  lowland  soils  or  in 
irrigated  regions  there  is  often  abundant  moisture  within 
reach  of  the  plant  to  serve  its  purposes  and  then  sweet 
potatoes  may  follow  a  hay  or  grain  crop  just  as  in  the 
practice  with  common  potatoes.  Lands  which  receive 
moisture  from  below,  and  yet  are  not  wet  and  cold,  pro- 
duce the  crop  with  least  labor  and  expense,  though  it  is 
quite  feasible  to  proceed  with  direct  irrigation  both  for 
planting  and  after  growth.  The  sweet  potato  sends  its 
roots  to  great  distances  to  find  moisture. 

Growing  the  Plants. — The  sweet  potato  grows  readily 
by  cuttings  from  the  growing  vine  planted  out  directly  in 
the  field  if  the  ground  is  moist  and  warm.  This  method  is 
followed  to  rapidly  multiply  a  rare  variety.  The  usual 
method  is  to  plant  the  crop  by  using  sprouts  from  potatoes 


SWEET  POTATOES.  325 

on  which  growth  is  quickly  started  with  bottom  heat.  Any 
of  the  hot-bed  appliances  described  in  the  chapter  on 
propagation  may  be  used  for  this  purpose  on  a  small  scale, 
but  in  the  warmer  parts  of  the  State  it  can  be  done  on  a 
large  scale  for  field  planting  without  expense  of  glass  or 
cloth  covering.  There  is,  however,  often  advantage  in  an 
early  start  with  sweet  potatoes,  and  for  this  the  plants 
must  be  started  when  air  and  soil  are  too  cold.  Hot  water 
circulation  is  being  used  for  bottom  heat.  If  artificial  heat 
is  used,  care  must  be  taken  against  overheating. 

To  grow  plants  in  the  open  air,  dig  a  trench  four  or  five 
feet  wide  and  about  two  feet  deep ;  the  length  according  to 
the  number  of  plants  desired.  The  trench  should  be  dug 
in  light,  well-drained  soil,  in  a  place  protected  from  cold 
winds,  such  as  the  south  side  of  a  building.  Put  in  fresh 
horse  manure  and  tramp  down  until  about  a  foot  and  a 
half  of  thickness  is  secured.  Wet  it  well, 'but  not  enough 
to  drain,  and  immediately  cover  with  three  or  four  inches 
of  moist  soil.  Upon  this  place  the  sweet  potatoes  just  as 
close  as  they  can  be  put  down  without  touching  each  other. 
When  done,  sift  in  fine  sand  between  the  potatoes  and 
finally  cover  with  three  inches  of  very  sandy  loam,  or  even 
with  sand.  Keep  this  bed  moist  but  not  wet.  Moisture 
and  heat  may  be  retained  by  covering  the  bed  with  two 
inches  of  loose  straw  to  be  removed  as  the  shoots  appear. 
The  plants  are  ready  for  use  in  about  eight  weeks  from 
the  bedding  of  the  tubers,  when  they  show  a  few  green 
leaves;  they  can  be  detached  by  pulling  and  will  bring 
their  outfit  of  small  roots  with  them  as  they  are  pulled 
out  of  the  sand.  The  tubers  will  then  send  up  other  shoots 
which  can  be  used  for  later  plantings. 

Some  prefer  to  uncover  the  potatoes,  beginning  at  one 
end  of  the  bed,  removing  the  shoots  and  replacing  the  cov- 
ering. This  lessens  the  danger  of  breaking  the  shoots. 
Others  split  the  potatoes  lengthwise  and  plant  with  the 
cut  side  down  so  that  all  the  shoots  come  from  the  upper 
surface,  and  are  thus  less  liable  to  break  in  pulling. 

Planting. — Most  sweet  potatoes  are  grown  on  ridges  to 


326  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES. 

secure  greater  heat  in  the  soil  and  to  facilitate  irrigation, 
but  flat  culture  is  also  practiced,  and  in  some  regions  is 
decidedly  better.  After  the  land  is  well  prepared  and 
harrowed  down  smooth,  mark  off  the  rows  three  feet  apart 
and  set  the  plants  eighteen  inches  apart  in  the  row.  When 
the  ground  is  thoroughly  warmed  by  the  advance  of  the 
season,  say  in  April  or  May,  take  the  shoots  as  described 
above.  They  must,  of  course,  be  kept  from  drying  out, 
the  young  roots  being  very  tender.  In  taking  them  to 
the  field  they  must,  therefore,  be  kept  in  a  bucket  with 
water,  or  in  a  wet  sack,  the  former  being  the  best.  Plant 
out  the  shoots  eighteen  inches  apart  in  the  rows,  one  in  a 
place,  settling  them  down  in  the  soil  deep  enough  to  find 
permanent  moisture. 

Sometimes  when  the  object  is  to  get  unusually  large 
potatoes,  instead  of  pulling  off  and  setting  out  the  slips, 
the  potato  is  lifted  out,  and  with  every  slip  a  small  piece 
of  the  potato  is  cut  out  and  planted  with  the  slip.  This 
method  will  bring  the  earliest  potatoes,  but  the  number 
of  sets  are  many  less  than  though  the  potato  be  allowed  to 
remain  in  bed  for  their  continued  production. 

Recently  planting  out  with  a  machine  has  come  into  use, 
such  as  the  transplanting  machine,  which  digs  a  trench  on 
the  top  of  the  ridge  and  drops  water  at  whatever  intervals 
are  desired.  Two  boys  place  the  plants,  holding  them 
until  the  machine  draws  the  dirt  securely  around  them. 

Cultivation. — Cultivation  for  the  purpose  of  weed  kill- 
ing and  surface  stirring  is  continued  until  the  vines  inter- 
fere, and  after  that  the  vines  cover  the  ground  with  a 
thick  mat  and  discourage  weed  growth. 

Harvesting  and  Storage. — Use  of  the  sweet  potatoes  may 
begin  when  they  attain  suitable  size,  but  for  keeping  they 
must  attain  a  good  degree  of  maturity. 

Some  find  the  keeping  of  sweet  potatoes  somewhat  diffi- 
cult. Many  pack  the  potatoes  in  dry  sand  and  keep  them 
in  the  house.  This  is  expensive  and  is  not  a  sure  way. 
Many  will  rot,  and  sometimes  only  one-third  of  them  will 
keep  till  spring.  Storage  in  the  open  air  with  due  pro- 


KEEPING  SWEET  POTATOES.  327 

tection  against  too  great  temperature  changes  and 
moisture  is  better.  This  method  has  been  approved  in 
Fresno  county  - 

Take  stout  stakes,  say  five  to  six  feet  long,  and  drive 
them  into  the  ground  in  a  row  and  five  feet  apart,  in  some 
dry  place  that  is  not  sheltered  by  trees.  Dig  the  potatoes 
and  throw  them  up  around  the  stakes  to  the  height  of  four 
feet.  For  a  large  field  a  great  many  such  rows  may  be 
necessary ;  for  a  small  patch  perhaps  one  single  stake  will 
suffice.  When  all  dug,  put  four  inches  of  straw  as  cover- 
ing. 

After  a  week  or  ten  days,  according  to  the  weather, 
the  potatoes  will  have  undergone  a  sweating  process. 
They  first  cover  themselves  with  moisture,  as  if  they  had 
been  dipped  in  water.  This  moisture  gradually  begins  to 
disappear,  and  as  soon  as  it  does  so  it  is  time  to  throw  off 
the  straw.  This  should  be  done  when  the  wind  is  blowing ; 
the  potato  hills  should  be  left  open  for  three  or  four  hours, 
or  until  the  potatoes  appear  entirely  dry.  If  the  straw 
covering  is  taken  off  in  the  morning,  the  potatoes  will  be 
dry  at  noon.  Then  cover  them  again  with  three  or  four 
inches  of  fresh,  dry  straw,  and  on  the  top  of  the  straw  put 
three  or  four  inches  of  soil  to  keep  out  the  cold.  On  the 
top  of  this  must  be  placed  a  roof,  which  is  easily  made  of 
shakes  nailed  to  strips  of  two  by  three  and  made  in  the 
shape  of  panels,  to  allow  of  easy  handling  and  of  repeated 
use  year  after  year.  Potatoes  kept  in  this  way  will  pre- 
serve perfectly  until  next  spring.  Very  few,  if  any,  will 
be  found  decayed. 

Varieties. — Probably  all  the  improved  varieties  have 
been  introduced  in  California.  The  California  demand  is 
for  a  variety  which  is  rather  dry  and  mealy  when  cooked, 
although  the  softer,  sweeter  sorts  have  some  advocates. 
The  most  common  variety  is  called  the  Californian,  but  it 
is  a  Chinese  sort  introduced  in  early  days.  The  Southern 
Queen  and  the  Nansemonds  are  also  popular  and  the 
Jersey  Red  is  grown  to  some  extent  in  southern  California. 


CHAPTER  XXIX. 
RADISHES. 

The  Radish. — Raphanus  sativus. 

French,  radis;  German,  radies;  Dutch,  radijs;  Danish, 
haverdoedike ;  Italian,  ravanello;  Spanish,  rabanito;  Por- 
tuguese, rabao. 

Horse-radish. — Coclilearia  Armor  acia. 

French,  raifort  sauvage;  German,  meerettig;  Dutch, 
peperwortel;  Danish,  peberrod;  Italian,  rafano;  Spanish, 
taramago ;  Portuguese,  rabao  de  cavalho. 

The  radish  is  a  relish  which  can  be  had  continuously 
throughout  the  year  in  most  parts  of  California,  if  proper 
soil  and  moisture  conditions  can  be  arranged.  It  is  almost 
a  hopeless  task  to  undertake  to  secure  a  crisp,  delicately 
flavored  radish  unless  heat  and  moisture  are  favorable  to 
quick  growth  of  the  plant.  It  takes  some  gardening  skill, 
therefore,  to  produce  good  radishes  in  winter  localities 
with  sharp  frosts  and  heavy  rainfall,  while  in  regions  of 
light  frost  and  light  rainfall,  winter  heat  is  usually  ade- 
quate to  satisfactory  growth. 

The  best  soil  for  radishes  is  a  rich,  sandy  loam,  though 
any  good  garden  soil  will  grow  them  if  a  small  piece  is 
improved  for  the  purpose  as  described  in  the  chapter  on 
Vegetables  Soils  of  California. 

Preparation  of  the  soil  is  essentially  the  same  as  that 
already  described  for  other  root-crops,  and  sowing,  as 
already  intimated,  can  be  done  whenever  the  soil  is  in 
good  condition,  if  irrigation  is  available  for  use  in  the  dry 
season,  and  there  is  free  drainage  in  the  winter.  Tempera- 
ture is,  however,  of  more  moment  to  the  radish  than  to 
some  other  hardy  garden  plants,  and  during  the  colder 
months,  the  raised  bed,  as  previously  described,  located 


GROWING  RADISHES.  329 

on  the  sunny  side  of  a  wind-break,  will  afford  heat  enough 
usually.  In  other  places  where  cold  and  rain  are  greater 
the  "warm  heap"  described  elsewhere  may  be  used.  By 
thus  adapting  the  method  to  local  conditions  winter 
growth  can  be  had  anywhere  in  the  valley  and  foothill  re- 
gions of  the  State.  Summer  growth  is  mainly  a  question 
of  soil-moisture  which  can  be  regulated  by  irrigation  and 
cultivation. 

As  the  radish  is  naturally  of  quick  growth  and  as  crisp- 
ness  and  mild  flavor  are  largely  conditioned  on  pushing  it 
to  the  utmost  of  its  speed,  it  can  be  grown  to  advantage 
as  a  catch  crop  here  and  there  in  the  garden  on  ground 
that  is  temporarily  out  of  use  for  a  few  weeks,  or  between 
the  rows  of  more  slowly  growing  vegetables.  The  gardener 
should  always  be  ready  to  scatter  good  radish  seed  when 
he  has  a  little  stretch  of  light,  rich,  moist  soil  at  command. 
A  little  attention  and  ingenuity  will  in  this  way  secure  a 
constant  supply. 

Varieties. — Popular  favor  runs  in  the  direction  of  the 
turnip-shaped  varieties,  of  which  there  are  very  many 
The  long  radishes  are,  however,  often  chosen  for  home  use. 
The  Early  Scarlet  Turnip  is  most  largely  grown  and  there 
are  several  strains  of  it  varying  in  earliness  and  color. 
The  French  Breakfast,  oval,  tipped  with  white,  stands 
next  to  the  Scarlet  Turnip  sorts,  and  the  White  and  Scar- 
let globes  are  widely  grown.  The  Italian  market  garden- 
ers-grow what  is  known  as  the  " Half-Long,"  a  variety 
of  Rose  Olive-Shaped  and  the  Black  Spanish,  very  desir- 
able for  winter  growth.  The  White  Turnip,  similar  to 
Scarlet  Turnip  except  in  color,  is  popular  with  German 
gardeners,  and  the  Chartier  has  some  popularity  as  a  large 
scarlet  variety,  shading  to  pink  and  thence  to  white  at 
the  root-tip.  The  Crimson  Giant  turnip  is  very  large  and 
yet  generally  solid  and  crisp.  The  Mammoth  Chinese  dis- 
tances all  others  for  size.  It  is  pure  white,  mild-flavored 
and  crisp,  even  though  it  may  grow  18  inches  in  length 
and  three  inches  in  diameter  in  six  weeks,  with  interior 
heat  on  light  soil,  abundantly  moist. 


330  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES. 

HORSE-RADISH. 

Horse-radish  is  a  popular  relish  in  California  and  is 
bottled  on  quite  a  large  scale.  The  plant  is  easily  grown 
and  should  be  found  in  every  farm  garden.  A  start  is 
most  conveniently  made  by  planting  root  sets.  Mr.  Ira 
W.  Adams  advises  planting  the  roots  or  sets  in  rows  two 
feet  apart  with  the  sets  one  foot  apart  in  the  rows,  and 
three  or  four  inches  under  the  surface.  On  rich,  moist 
soil,  with  the  best  of  cultivation,  one  can  raise  roots  that 
will  weigh  from  one-half  to  three-quarters  of  a  pound. 
When  the  roots  are  dug  in  winter  for  use,  break  off  all  the 
small  rootlets  from  one-quarter  to  one-half  inch  in  diam- 
eter, cut  into  pieces  from  three  to  five  inches  long,  leaving 
the  top  end  square,  and  the  bottom  end  slanting,  so  there 
will  be  no  mistake  in  planting  them  upside  down.  Tie  in 
small  bunches  and  put  into  moist  sand  that  has  perfect 
drainage  and  is  exposed  to  the  weather.  In  very  cold, 
long,  heavy  rains  it  is  well  to  cover  with  shakes,  or  short 
pieces  of  boards.  A  cool  cellar  is  a  good  place  to  store 
them,  but  be  careful  that  the  sand  is  never  allowed  to  get 
dry,  as  the  sets  will  not  root  nicely  without  continual 
moisture.  Early  in  the  spring  there  will  be  nicely  rooted 
sets  ready  for  transplanting,  as  before  described. 


CHAPTER  XXX. 
RHUBARB. 

Rhubarb  or  Pie  Plant. — Rheum  sp. 

French,  rhubarbe;  German  and  Danish,  rhabarber; 
Dutch,  rabarber;  Italian,  rabarbaro;  Spanish  and  Por- 
tuguese, ruibarbo. 

Rhubarb  attains  grand  size  and  quality  in  California  if 
due  attention  is  paid  to  the  requirements  of  the  plant,  and 
it  should  have  a  place  in  every  house  garden.  It  enjoys 
very  rich  soil  and  will  thrive  on  a  great  variety  of  soils, 
even  from  heavy  clay  to  light  peat,  providing  ample  mois- 
ture is  afforded  it.  On  heavy,  retentive  soils  it  must  have 
good  cultivation  or  thick  mulching  to  prevent  loss  of 
moisture  and  surface  baking :  on  light,  coarse  soils  either 
ample  irrigation  or  natural  sub-irrigation  will  keep  the 
plant  thrifty  and  vigorous.  It  does  not  enjoy  high  heat 
and  drought,  and  the  old  varieties  reach  best  estate  and 
are  chiefly  commercially  produced  in  the  coast  valleys  or 
on  the  river  bottom  lands  of  the  interior,  but  can  be  very 
satisfactorily  grown  for  home  use  on  interior  plains  and 
mesas  providing  constant  moisture  is  supplied;  partial 
shade  is  also  grateful  to  the  foilage  in  the  interior,  but  is 
not  necessary  on  the  coast.  Since  the  wide  introduction 
of  winter  growing  rhubarb,  which  defies  the  frost  and  en- 
joys the  ample  moisture  of  the  rainy  season,  the  range  of 
the  plant  has  vastly  increased  in  California  and  its  com- 
mercial importance  has  greatly  advanced. 

Culture. — Rhubarb  is  grown  from  seed  or  propagated 
by  division  of  the  roots:  the  latter  insures  reproduction 
of  the  identical  characters  of  the  parent,  while  from  seed 
there  is  always  a  chance  of  variation. 

Rhubarb  plants  may  be  grown  from  seed  by  preparing 


332  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES. 

the  ground  in  the  same  way  already  described  for  aspara- 
gus, and  the  same  care  of  the  seedling  as  there  indicated 
will  bring  good,  strong  rhubarb  roots  for  planting  out  as 
yearlings.  Mr.  Ira  W.  Adams  gives  the  following  special 
advice  for  rhubarb  seedlings : 

Prepare  the  bed  the  same  as  for  asparagus.  Sow  the 
seed  in  rows  one  foot  apart,  and  one  inch  apart  in  the  row 
in  a  little  furrow  one  inch  deep ;  tamp  down  lightly  with 
the  back  of  a  steel  rake  and  cover  with  the  finest  of  soil, 
as  the  seeds  are  small  and  light.  When  the  plants  are  an 
inch  or  two  high,  they  can  be  transplanted  into  rows  12 
inches  apart,  and  four  inches  between  the  plants.  By  fall 
they  will  be  fine,  strong  plants,  and  can  be  planted  out  the 
next  spring  in  permanent  rows. 

Root  sets  are  made  by  dividing  the  roots  of  the  older 
plants  so  that  each  piece  shall  have  a  bud  or  eye.  The  most 
vigorous  plants,  producing  the  largest  leaves  and  thickest 
leaf-stems,  should  be  selected  for  this  purpose. 

Planting. — Before  planting  either  in  field  or  garden  the 
soil  should  be  heavily  manured  and  deeply  turned  in  the 
fall  so  as  to  get  the  full  benefit  of  the  winter  rains.  Trans- 
planting of  the  old  varieties  should  be  done  when  the 
plant  is  dormant,  the  soil  in  good  working  condition  and 
warmth  enough  for  growth  anticipated.  The  date  will, 
of  course,  vary  in  different  localities,  but  February  will 
usually  be  satisfactory  for  the  summer  growing  varieties. 
The  soil  must  not  be  too  wet  at  transplanting  or  the  roots 
may  rot:  good  warmth  and  moisture  are  favorable.  The 
introduction  of  winter  growing  varieties  has  modified 
transplanting  practice.  They  are  practically  evergreen 
and  active  except  for  a  short  dormancy  in  the  late  sum- 
mer, and,  though  capable  of  transplanting  by  cutting  back 
the  leaves  all  through  the  rainy  season,  are  usually  moved 
the  best  advantage  from  April  to  June,  the  latter  period 
being  available  on  irrigated  land. 

There  are  different  ways  of  planting  out,  each  with  its 
own  advocates.  Boots  set  four  feet  apart  each  way  give 
good  opportunity  for  cultivation  both  ways :  but  some 


GROWING  RHUBARB.  333 

give  more  room  by  laying  off  in  six  feet  rows  with  the 
plants  three  or  four  feet  apart  in  the  row.  Others  plant 
in  the  garden,  placing  the  plants  two  feet  apart,  if  only 
one  row  is  planted,  and  in  four  feet  rows  with  the  plants 
three  feet  apart  if  there  are  to  be  several  rows.  On  good, 
strong,  deep  soils,  it  is  well  to  give  plenty  of  room,  for 
large  growth  of  leaves  is  desired  to  impart  vigor  to  the 
roots.  Distance  depends  somewhat  upon  the  variety,  but 
nearly  all  growers  aim  at  very  large  leaf  stems,  and  these 
require  ample  space. 

Treatment. — Plants  of  summer  growing  varieties  should 
be  allowed  to  retain  all  their  leaves  the  first  year  after 
planting  out,  and  there  must  be  abundant  moisture  for 
summer  growth  if  there  is  to  be  a  heavy  crop  the  second 
3'ear.  Frequent  summer  cultivation  is  desirable  unless 
mulching  is  employed,  and  if  it  is,  the  grower  must  be 
sure  that  his  mulching  is  heavy  enough  to  retain  moisture. 
It  is  probably  better  to  trust  to  cultivation  and  irrigation 
in  most  situations.  With  the  fall  rains  the  surface  should 
be  liberally  dressed  with  manure  and  covered  in  as  deeply 
as  possible  without  injury  to  the  roots.  Shallow  cultiva- 
tion should  follow  before  the  weeds  advance  too  far,  to  be 
repeated  as  necessary  to  keep  the  field  clean. 

Winter  growing  varieties,  planted  out  in  the  spring  and 
summer,  irrigated,  establish  themselves  so  strong^  the 
first  summer  that  some  pulling  can  be  done  upon  them  the 
following  winter.  Even  without  irrigation,  spring  set 
plants  will  receive  a  new  impulse  with  the  first  rain,  grow 
riotously  with  the  autumn  heat  and  give  large  leaf  stems 
by  the  holidays  in  the  warmer  parts  of  the  State. 

Manuring  and  cultivation  should  be  followed  year  after 
year  to  keep  the  soil  rich  and  in  good  tilth.  Some  soils 
are,  however,  so  rich  naturally  that  such  liberal  manuring 
may  not  be  necessary.  The  plant  should  not  be  too  fully 
stripped  of  its  leaves  nor  should  the  pulling  be  continued 
too  late  in  the  summer.  The  following  crop  depends  upon 
adequate  leaf  action — consequently  the  plant  must  have 
foliage  and  summer  moisture  to  maintain  it. 


334  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES. 

Varieties. — The  Monarch  is  largely  grown.  It  has  a  very 
wide,  flat  stem.  The  Victoria  has  red,  long  stems,  rather 
sharp  acid,  but  a  very  productive  sort  and  popular.  Lin- 
naeus is  early,  large,  thick  stems,  of  excellent  flavor  and 
less  acid. 

The  Crimson  Winter,  introduced  from  Australia  by  Lu- 
ther Burbank  about  1895,  and  sold  by  him  to  the  trade  in 
1900,  has  revolutionized  rhubarb  growing  in  California  by 
completely  reversing  the  market  season.  This  variety  and 
its  improvements  by  Mr.  Burbank  and  by  others  who  have 
practiced  selection  since  he  sold  it  out,  has  multiplied  the 
rhubarb  acreage  of  the  State  and  vastly  increased  the  ser- 
viceability and  commercial  suitability  of  the  plant.  It  has 
precluded  forcing  in  California  and  promises  to  render 
forcing  unprofitable  even  in  the  wintry  parts  of  the  coun- 
try because  of  the  large  supplies  of  open  air  rhubarb  which 
are  available  for  shipment  from  this  State  at  all  times  of 
the  year  when  the  summer  varieties  grown  in  wintry  cli- 
mates are  unproductive. 


CHAPTER  XXXI. 
SPINACH. 

Common  Spinach. — Spinacia  oleracea  and  spinosa. 

French,  epinard ;  German,  spinat ;  Dutch,  spinazie ; 
Danish,  spinat ;  Italian,  spinaccio ;  Spanish,  espinaca ;  Por- 
tuguese, espinafre. 

New  Zealand  Spinach. — Tetragonia  expansa. 

Spinach  is  an  all-the-year-  plant  in  California,  and  the 
house-gardener  need  never  fail  to  have  tender  foliage  for 
boiling  if  he  arranges  for  successive  sowings  and  knows 
the  varieties  and  species  which  befit  the  changing  seasons, 
for  he  can  choose  for  fall  sowing  that  which  is  perfectly 
hardy  and  thrifty  in  the  California  winter,  and  for  spring 
sowing  that  which  will  furnish  succulent  pluckings  even 
through  the  heat  and  drought  of  the  interior  summer.  But 
though  this  is  so,  it  is  chiefly  as  affording  winter  greens 
that  spinach  is  grown  for  the  market.  The  summer  fur- 
nishes so  large  a  variety  of  table  vegetables  that  it  is 
chiefly  in  winter  that  the  housewife  turns  her  attention  to 
pot-herbs. 

Culture. — The  varieties  of  common  spinach  (spinacia) 
dislike  heat  and  drought  and  enjoy  moist,  rich  soil  and 
moderate  temperature.  These  conditions  are  afforded  by 
all  California  gardens  in  the  winter,  providing  the  grower 
will  heed  the  suggestions  for  ridge-culture,  etc.,  given  in 
previous  chapters,  for  escaping  surplus  water  and  secur- 
ing suitable  growing-temperature  in  the  winter  garden. 
With  these  provisions  it  is  easy  to  secure  winter  spinach 
by  following  the  suggestions  given  for  the  winter  growth 
of  lettuce,  peas  or  other  hardy  vegetables.  What  has  been 
said  of  fall  sowing  of  these,  applies  also  to  spinach.  The 
plant  makes  best  growth  from  seed  sown  in  place,  and  if 


336  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES. 

the  seed  is  good  it  may  be  thinly  sown,  for  the  plants 
should  not  be  allowed  to  crowd  each  other.  They  should 
have  from  six  to  nine  inches  space  in  the  row  and  should 
be  kept  free  from  encroachment  of  weeds.  To  keep  the 
soil  from  packing  by  rains,  and  to  push  the  plants  as  well, 
a  top  dressing  of  fine  manure  may  be  placed  to  be  leached 
out  by  the  rains.  In  a  garden  with  permanent  walks, 
spinach  may  be  sown  as  a  border  plant,  which  brings  it 
within  easy  reach  for  the  frequent  plucking  of  leaves.  The 
plants  will  endure  this,  and  by  means  of  new  growth  on 
old  plants  and  successive  sowings,  it  is  feasible,  as  above 
stated,  to  have  spinach  always  ready.  The  variety  chiefly 
used  is  the  ''Large  Prickly,"  although  the  "Long  Stand- 
ing" is  also  esteemed  because  of  its  long  leaf  growth  be- 
fore sending  up  seed  stems.  The  Round  or  Summer  is  also 
considerably  used. 

For  greens  in  the  hot  and  dry  summer  and  dry  autumn, 
the  New  Zealand  spinach  is  making  a  fine  record  in  Cali- 
fornia. It  has  been  widely  distributed  by  the  State  Uni- 
versity. Even  in  interior  situations  it  grows  on  dry  ground 
all  summer,  and  maintains  rich  green  color  until  frost  kills 
the  top  growth.  The  stems  and  foliage  are  very  sensitive 
to  frost,  but  the  root  is  more  hardy  and  gives  new  growth 
and  is  useful  in  the  spring.  The  plant  sends  out  shoots  of 
considerable  length  which  may  be  cut  off  for  cooking.  Its 
tenderness  and  flavor  are  vouched  for  by  many  growers. 
Early  summer  cutting  may  be  had  by  starting  plants  with 
bottom  heat  and  planting  out  like  egg  plants,  but  in  our 
long  summer,  sowing  in  the  spring  after  frost  danger  is 
over,  gives  abundant  foliage  in  late  summer  and  autumn. 


CHAPTER  XXXII. 
SQUASHES. 

Mammoth  Squashes  or  Pumpkins. — Cucurbita  maxima. 

French,  potirons;  German,  melonen-kurbiss ;  Danish, 
centner-groeskar ;  Italian,  zucca;  Spanish,  calabaza  to- 
tanera. 

Marrows  and  Scollops. — Cucurbita  pepo. 

The  species  moschata  also  contributes  same  horticultural 
varieties. 

The  California-grown  squashes  are  all  noted  for  pro- 
digious size  and  the  acre-product  is  also  immense.  Squashes 
have  been  used  from  the  early  days  as  exponents  of  size 
in  California  vegetables,  at  all  distant  and  local  exhibi- 
tions, and  the  statistics  thereof  would  fill  a  volume. 
Weights  of  single  specimens  have  been  attained  in  excess 
of  300  pounds,  and  field  crops  above  30  tons  to  the  acre. 
To  avoid  exaggeration  and  at  the  same  time  present  the 
truth  about  the  California  squash  in  a  picturesque  man- 
ner, a  single  record  is  presented  from  the  writer's  collec- 
tion of  cucurbitous  literature.  Philander  Kellogg,  of  Go- 
leta,  Santa  Barbara  county,  who  is  personally  known  to 
the  writer  as  a  man  of  truth  and  probity,  furnishes  this 
statement : 

I  planted  my  squashes  in  May,  and  harvested  them  in 
October.  Finding  that  they  were  unusually  large,  I 
weighed  10  of  the  largest  and  found  that  their  aggregate 
weight  was  one  ton  and  50  odd  pounds,  the  largest  one 
weighing  225  pounds.  This  squash  was  exhibited  at  the 
county  fair  and  received  the  first  prize.  On  the  15th  of 
November,  which  was  my  boy's  sixteenth  birthday,  I  cut 
open  one  of  the  other  squashes,  that  weighed  210  pounds, 
and  took  out  the  seeds ;  my  boy  then  got  into  it  and  I  put 


338  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES. 

the  piece  together  and  completely  closed  him  in,  the  parts 
coming  tight  together.  I  then  persuaded  my  eighteen- 
year-old  daughter  to  get  into  it  and  I  closed  her  in,  in  the 
same  manner.  My  daughter's  weight  was  110  pounds.  I 
then  put  two  seven-year-old  boys  in  at  once.  I  then  put 
my  three  little  girls  in  at  once ;  they  were  aged  respec- 
tively six,  four  and  two  years,  their  united  weight  being 
116  pounds.  I  placed  the  largest  child  in  the  bottom  and 
the  little  one  on  the  top  and  then  put  on  the  lid;  the 
squash  was  cut  so  that  the  top  could  be  easily  put  on  or 
removed.  The  squash  was  three  feet  four  or  five  inches 
in  length. 

The  growth  and  productiveness  of  the  plant  in  specially 
favorable  places  are  proportional  to  the  size  of  the  fruit : 
vine  growth  of  50  feet  and  from  30  to  42  good  sized  fruits 
to  the  single  vine  are  recorded — a  good  wagon  load  to  the 
vine. 

Localities  and  Soils. — The  greatest  specimens  and  the 
heaviest  crops  are  produced  on  rich,  retentive  loams. 
These  are  rather  heavy  soils  and  are  usually  the  lowlands 
of  either  coast  or  interior  valleys.  But  great  squashes  are 
not  confined  to  such  soils.  Lighter  soils,  if  abundantly 
rich  and  adequately  moist,  are  also  very  satisfactory,  and 
in  fact  any  good  soil  deeply  plowed  and  properly  culti- 
vated, until  the  vines  cover  the  ground,  may  be  expected 
to  give  good  return.  For  this  reason  the  dairy  farmer  who 
has  suitable  land,  grows  squash  in  large  quantity  for  fall 
and  early  winter  feeding ;  the  mixed  farmer  enters  squash 
as  a  stated  item  in  his  list  of  crops,  and  the  fruit  farmer 
is  quite  apt  to  grow  squash  between  the  trees  in  his  young 
orchard,  to  contribute  to  his  family  milk  supply. 

The  squash  is  somewhat  exacting  in  its  moisture  supply, 
and  does  not  respond  well  on  light,  dry  soils  unless  irri- 
gated. With  enough  moisture  the  plant  endures  the  high- 
est interior  heat  and  records  large  production.  Excessive 
irrigation  is,  however,  to  be  avoided,  for  it  is  apt  to  di- 
minish the  fruiting. 


340  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES. 

Culture. — The  squash  plant  is  very  tender:  it  is  de- 
stroyed by  frost,  and  the  seed  is  apt  to  fail  in  cold  ground. 
The  proper  practice  is  to  have  the  soil  previously  well  cul- 
tivated, but  to  delay  planting  seed  or  transplanting  seed- 
lings from  the  covered  bed  until  the  time  is  frost-free  and 
the  soil  warm.  The  culture  of  the  squash  is  therefore  like 
that  already  prescribed  for  the  cucumber  and  for  melons, 
in  the  chapters  devoted  to  those  subjects,  to  which  the 
reader  is  referred.  The  bush  varieties  of  squashes  follow 
the  cucumber  in  distances,  and  the  running  varieties  fol- 
low watermelon  distances.  There  is,  however,  some  dif- 
ference in  the  practice  of  growers  of  the  running  varieties : 
some  advocate  rather  close  planting,  as  six  by  six  or  eight 
by  eight  feet  in  squares,  and  others  plant  at  wider  dis- 
tances, even  to  setting  two  plants  in  a  place  at  intervals 
of  14  feet  apart.  It  is  impossible  to  state  any  specific  dis- 
tance at  best :  it  is  to  be  determined  locally  according  to 
the  growth  which  the  local  soil  and  climate  produce.  One 
is  apt  to  err  on  the  side  of  crowding  than  otherwise. 

Care  must  be  had  not  to  cover  the  seed  too  deeply.  It 
must  be  firmly  placed  in  moist  soil  and  covered  enough  to 
avoid  quick  drying.  The  suggestions  in  the  chapter  on 
propagation  are  as  definite  as  they  can  be  made,  accord- 
ing to  the  character  of  the  soils  employed. 

Cultivation  must  be  begun  as  soon  as  possible  after 
planting,  to  save  moisture  from  loss  either  by  weeds  or 
evaporation,  and  must  be  frequent  for  the  same  reason. 
Nothing  looks  more  distressful  than  squash  vines  perish- 
ing on  baked  clay  or  dry  sandy  soil  which,  if  properly 
cultivated  from  the  start,  would  have  sustained  a  splendid 
growth. 

Garden  Culture. — In  addition  to  injunctions  for 
thorough  working  of  the  soil  and  adequate  irrigation, 
there  is  the  opportunity  in  garden  culture  to  produce 
grand  results  by  special  fertilization.  Careful  use  of  the 
compost  or  liquid  manure,  described  in  the  chapter  on  fer- 
tilization, produces  marvelous  results. 


SQUASH  GROWING.  341 

Varieties. — We  have  in  California  probably  all  kinds  of 
squash  known  to  horticulture.  Some  amateurs  take  special 
interest  in  such  collections,  and  scores  of  varieties  repre- 
senting the  whole  gourd  family  have  been  shown  in  State 
fair  exhibits.  And  yet  the  bulk  of  the  product  is  made  of 
very  few  varieties. 

Of  the  bush  forms  which  are  relied  upon  for  summer 
squash,  the  scollops  comprise  most  of  the  crop,  both  the 
early  white  and  yellow  being  grown — the  former  pre- 
ferred. The  yellow  crook-neck  is  also  grown  to  some  ex- 
tent. The  Italian  and  Boston  marrows  have  a  few  warm 
advocates. 

Of  the  winter  squash  for  table  use,  the  Hubbard  and  the 
Red  or  Golden  Hubbard,  which  is  a  little  earlier,  are  chiefly 
grown.  The  field  squash  crop  is  made  of  several  varieties. 
The  California  Marrowfat,  a  splendid,  orange-colored 
squash,  takes  the  lead,  while  associated  with  it  in  the  same 
field  may  be  found  the  Mammoth  Chile,  which  is  usually 
the  sort,  more  or  less  pure,  which  yields  the  largest  speci- 
mens. There  is  also  a  very  large  winter  crookneck,  very 
prolific  and  rather  more  hardy  in  trying  situations,  but  not 
so  good  in  keeping  quality  as  the  preceding.  Here  and 
there  may  be  found  a  field  of  the  old-fashioned  New  Eng- 
land pumpkin,  and  fair  exhibits  usually  bring  to  light  both 
the  Etampes  and  Tours  pumpkins,  but  the  large  orange 
and  light  olive  fruits  are  named  squashes  in  the  California 
vernacular,  and  are  preferred.  There  is  much  confusion 
both  in  the  terms  "squash"  and  "pumpkin,"  and  there 
are  many  chance  hybrids  which  await  analysis  by  some 
cucurbitous  specialist.  O 


CHAPTER  XXXIII. 
THE  TOMATO. 

Tomato  or  Love  Apple. — Lycopersicum  esculentum. 

French,  German,  Spanish,  and  Portuguese,  tomate; 
Dutch,  tomaat;  Italian,  porno  d'oro. 

The  tomato  is  one  of  the  most  popular,  prolific,  and 
profitable  of  California  vegetables.  It  is  grown  every- 
where during  the  local  occurrences  of  the  frost-free  period, 
and  in  our  thermal  situations  the  fruit  can  be  gathered  all 
the  year.  The  earliest  fruit  in  our  local  markets  and  the 
earliest  shipments  to  the  East  are  gathered  from  vines 
which  have  continued  growth  from  the  previous  summer 
and  autumn,  and,  encountering  no  killing  frost,  are  able 
to  fruit  through  the  winter  months.  Favorable  places 
near  the  coast  in  southern  California  are  best  known  for 
this  winter  crop.  The  winter-grown  fruit  is,  of  course,  in- 
ferior to  the  summer  and  fall  crop,  though  it  is  excellent 
enough  to  command  high  prices  for  table  use  until  the 
earliest  yield  from  spring  plantings  is  to  be  had.  When 
this  new  crop  comes  in,  the  fruit  from  the  hold-over  plants 
becomes  cheaper,  but  is  still  marketed  until  the  new  crop 
becomes  abundant.  In  this  way  one  year's  plants  in 
southern  thermal  situations  lap  over  upon  the  yield  of  the 
following  year  in  the  earliest  interior  sections  at  the  north, 
and  the  tomato  supply  from  open  air  plants  is  continuous 
through  out  the  year,  though  the  supply  regions  are  hun- 
dreds of  miles  distant  from  each  other.  The  fact  that  the 
north  produces  earlier  spring  tomatoes  from  new  plants 
than  in  the  south  is  difficult  for  distant  students  to  realize. 
It  is  conditioned  upon  ocean  influences  and  local  topog- 
raphy, which  at  the  south  prevent  frosts  which  winter-kill 
the  old  plants  at  the  north,  and  at  the  same  time  postpone 


CONDITIONS  FOR  TOMATOES.  343 

spring  heat  at  the  south,  which  is  attained  earlier  in  shel- 
tered places  in  the  interior  at  the  north  from  which  ocean 
influences  are  excluded.  There  are  places  in  the  interior 
at  the  south,  east  of  the  high  mountain  range,  which  are 
furnishing  tomatoes  earlier  than  either  the  southern  coast 
or  the  northern  interior.  Still,  in  the  all-the-year  demand 
for  the  tomato,  it  is  necessary  to  bring  some  fruit  from 
Mexico  and  from  the  forcing  houses  of  the  Southern  States, 
and  it  is  probable  that  more  forcing  of  tomatoes  will  be 
undertaken  in  this  State  in  the  fuutre.  No  vegetable  has 
advanced  so  rapidly  in  public  esteem  during  the  last 
decade  as  the  tomato. 

Requirements  of  the  Tomato. — For  early  tomatoes  which 
can  attain  their  chief  growth  before  the  close  of  the  rainy 
season,  somewhat  elevated  situations,  above  the  lowland 
frosts,  and  with  light,  warm  soils  and  free  drainage,  should 
be  selected.  Sometimes  frosts  will  occasion  replanting,  for 
which  a  stock  of  thrifty  plants  should  always  be  in  readi- 
ness. It  is  idle  to  attempt  the  growth  of  early  tomatoes 
on  a  commercial  scale  except  on  situations  naturally  fitted 
for  them.  In  the  family  garden,  however,  slight  covering 
from  frost  can  be  successfully  undertaken. 

For  the  main  crop  of  tomatoes,  rich,  lower  lands,  either 
naturally  retentive  of  moisture  or  supplied  therewith  by 
irrigation,  are  usually  employed.  Even  heavy  valley  soils 
are  profitably  used  by  thorough  preparation  before  plant- 
ing and  cultivation  afterward.  Late  planting  can  be  prac- 
ticed and  immense  yields  are  secured  for  harvesting  in 
September  and  October,  when  the  fruit  is  of  superior 
solidity  and  the  canneries  are  clear  of  their  summer  fruit 
work  and  can  turn  their  full  capacity  to  this  most  popular 
canned  vegetable.  In  some  parts  of  the  State,  November 
and  December  tomatoes  are  very  profitable  when  autumn 
frosts  and  rains  are  light. 

The  moisture  requirements  of  the  tomato  are  moderate, 
but  they  must  be  adequately  met.  Stunted  vines  and 
small,  inferior  fruit  are  the  results  of  drouth.  High  heat 
can  be  endured  and  favors  growth,  provided  ample 


344  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES. 

moisture  is  available.  The  more  moderate  heat  of  the  coast 
regions  and  the  interior  river  bottoms  is,  however,  ade- 
quate for  full  development  of  the  plant,  and  it  is  attained 
with  much  less  moisture  than  on  the  higher  lands  of  the 
interior.  For  this  reason  splendid  crops  are  secured  with- 
out irrigation  on  retentive  soils  in  valleys  of  sufficient 
rainfall,  even  if  the  plants  are  not  set  until  the  opening 
of  the  dry  season — provided  suitable  winter  and  spring 
working  is  given  to  prevent  evaporation  and  to  hold 
moisture  near  the  surface.  On  lands  moistened  by  under- 
flow splendid  tomatoes  can  be  grown  without  irrigation 
all  through  the  local  frost-free  period. 

Plants  for  the  Garden. — Tomatoes  are  readily  grown 
from  seed  and  the  best  plants  are  those  produced  with 
moderate  heat.  They  need  simple  protection  from  cold 
rather  than  forcing  heat,  as  our  day  temperatures  from 
February  onward  are  almost  always  adequate.  For 
earlier  starting  of  plants  some  bottom  heat  is  desirable 
and  can  be  profitably  used  if  care  is  taken  for  free  ad- 
mission of  air  and  subsequent  hardening  of  the  plants  by 
later  growth  under  protection  but  at  lower  temperatures. 
The  considerations,  urged  in  the  chapter  on  propagation 
for  the  handling  of  seeds  and  seedlings  have  special  ap- 
plicability to  the  growth  of  tomato  plants.  For  the  home 
garden  in  the  central  and  northern  valley  regions  there  is 
perhaps  no  better  way  of  growing  plants  than  that  of 
Ira  W.  Adams,  as  follows : 

''Plant  the  seed  about  the  middle  of  February  in  a  small 
box  two  inches  in  depth,  and  keep  in  the  house  by  a  south 
window  in  a  moderately  warm  room.  ,0n  warm,  sunny 
days,  put  them  outdoors,  and  let  them  remain  out  day  and 
night  whenever  the  weather  is  warm  enough ;  in  this  way 
they  will  make  stocky  plants  and  be  much  hardier  than  if 
raised  altogether  in  the  house.  The  soil  should  be  rich 
and  mellow,  and  always  kept  a  little  moist.  When  the 
plants  appear,  thin  out  to  an  inch  apart.  As  soon  as  the 
plants  begin  to  crowd  each  other,  transplant  to  another 
box  about  four  inches  in  depth  and  give  them  a  space  of 


TOMATO  SEED  BEDS.  345 

four  inches.  By  the  time  they  crowd  each  other  again 
they  can  be  transplanted  outdoors  on  the  south  side  of  the 
house  or  barn  into  a  good-sized  bed  of  rich  soil.  Here 
they  can  remain  until  they  get  to  be  large,  strong,  hardy 
plants,  with  very  large,  fibrous  roots.  When  all  danger 
of  frost  is  over,  take  a  sharp  spade  and  cut  out  a  square 
of  dirt  with  each  plant,  put  into  rows  six  feet  apart,  with 


BEDS  FOR  GROWING  TOMATO  PLANTS  IN  IMPERIAL 
VALLEY. 


the  plants  the  same  distance  in  the  row.  Plants  can  be 
transplanted  in  this  way  when  over  a  foot  high  and  in 
blossom.  By  transplanting  them  just  at  night,  or  on  a 
cloudy  day,  they  will  hardly  ever  show  a  wilted  leaf." 

Another  way  to  secure  large  plants  for  garden  planting 
is  to  start  them  in  a  seed  box,  in  the  house,  or  with  bottom 
heat  as  described  in  the  chapter  on  propagation,  and  then 
transplant,  when  small,  into  growing  cases  made  of  dis- 
carded fruit  cans.  Select  those  of  similar  size,  throw 
them  on  a  burning  brush  pile  for  a  few  minutes,  when  the 


346  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES. 

tops  and  bottoms  will  drop  out,  and  the  seams  on  the  sides 
will  open,  leaving  a  smooth  tin  shell.  Tie  a  string  around 
each  to  keep  it  from  spreading.  Set  them  in  a  box  or 
frame  made  of  four  boards.  Fill  the  cans  and  the  spaces 
between  them  with  good  friable  soil,  set  a  small  plant  in 
the  center  of  each  shell,  sprinkle  well  and  keep  moist. 
When  the  plants  are  well  grown  they  may  be  transplanted 
in  the  garden.  Take  the  cans  carefully  out  of  the  frames, 
grasping  the  cans  firmly  to  prevent  the  plants  and  soil 
slipping  out ;  set  them  in  a  box  or  wheelbarrow  and  move 
them  where  wanted.  Prepare  the  soil  by  working  in  a 
shovelful  of  well-rotted  manure  where  a  plant  is  to  stand, 
but  this  is  not  required  if  the  soil  is  rich.  Dig  a  hole  deep 
enough  to  set  the  upper  rim  of  the  can  level  with  the 
ground,  cut  the  string  and  fill  up  and  press  the  soil  firmly 
around  the  can,  then  by  spreading  the  top  of  the  can  a 
trifle,  it  can  be  drawn  out  over  the  plants  without  disturb- 
ing the  roots.  If  the  weather  is  dry  and  warm,  water  may 
be  used  at  transplanting — drawing  loose  soil  around  the 
plants  after  the  water  soaks  away. 

Plants  for  the  Field. — The  above  methods  will  produce 
plants  of  great  size  and  vigor  to  delight  the  amateur.  For 
a  field  crop  it  is  hardly  practicable  to  grow  and  handle 
plants  in  such  an  expensive  way,  and  satisfactory  results 
can  be  attained  with  much  less  labor.  For  late  planting 
they  may  be  grown  in  quantity  in  a  cold  frame  with  cloth 
cover  or  in  a  raised  bed  with  slight  protection  from  frost 
and  sheltered  from  cold  winds,  or  even  on  the  open  ground 
in  frostless  places.  It  is  best  to  sow  the  seeds  in  drills, 
using  the  spaces  between  for  cultivation  and  irrigation  if 
needed,  but  many  plants  are  often  grown  from  the  seed  by 
simply  thinning  the  seedlings  as  they  stand,  though  the 
transplanted  seedlings  are  always  more  thrifty  and  stocky. 
They  have  a  much  better  root-system,  and  grow  more 
thriftily  after  transplanting.  Take  the  seedlings  when 
they  have  come  in  the  rough  leaf,  and  with  a  small  hard- 
wood stick,  made  pointed  at  one  end,  take  up  the  young 


PLANTING  TOMATOES.  347 

plants  and  dibble  them  in  clear  down  to  the  seed  leaf. 
Place  them  about  three  inches  apart  each  way,  water  them 
well,  and  in  a  few  days  they  will  begin  to  grow,  and  in 
this  way  fine,  stocky  plants  can  be  grown  almost  ready  to 
blossom  when  they  are  set  out  in  the  open  ground  where 
they  are  to  remain.  There  is  nothing  gained  by  setting 
out  tomatoes  in  the  open  ground  when  they  are  too  small ; 
if  anything,  time  is  lost  by  doing  so,  while  a  large,  stocky 
plant  has  plenty  of  fine  fibrous  roots,  and  is  rapidly  estab- 
lished in  its  new  place. 

Tomato  plants  may  also  be  grown  from  stem  cuttings, 
as  described  in  the  chapter  on  propagation. 

Planting  Out  Tomatoes. — In  addition  to  suggestions  al- 
ready made  for  planting  out,  it  should  be  remarked  that 
for  late  planting  especially,  and  in  light  soils,  it  is  de- 
sirable to  set  the  plants  quite  deeply  in  the  soil.  If  the 
plants  are  slim  and  "leggy"  they  should  be  shortened, 
pruning  off  the  laterals  and  most  of  the  leaves  to  escape 
wilting,  from  which  it  is  hard  for  the  plant  to  recover. 
The  rule  with  some  growers  is  to  set  the  plant  half  the 
length  of  the  stem  deeper  than  it  stood  in  the  seed  bed, 
and  in  light,  dry  interior  soils  the  stem  has  been  entirely 
buried  with  good  results.  Depth  of  planting  depends  upon 
the  character  of  the  soil  and  its  content  of  moisture. 
Where  moisture  is  to  be  abundant  it  is  better  to  have  the 
roots  nearer  the  surface. 

Preparation  of  land  for  tomatoes  should  begin  early  in 
the  rainy  season,  as  for  beans,  corn  or  melons,  to  render 
the  soil  absorptive  of  moisture  and  to  secure  good  deep 
tilth.  Re-working  in  the  spring,  and  cultivation  until  it  is 
safe  to  plant  out  the  tomatoes,  keeps  the  soil  in  fine  con- 
dition, saves  moisture  and  insures  a  crop  at  minimum  cost. 
Crops  are  often  grown  on  spring  plowing  alone,  but  it  is 
an  uphill  task,  and  attended  by  great  risk  of  failure,  if 
spring  rains  are  scant,  as  they  often  are. 

Field  planting  is  generally  done  by  hand,  sometimes  at 
the  intersection  of  cross-markings,  but  often  with  less 


348  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES. 

care,  by  placing  the  plants  firmly  on  the  side  of  a  fur- 
row and  covering  with  another  furrow.  Some  large  grow- 
ers use  the  transplanting  machine  mentioned  for  sweet 
potatoes,  and  it  works  well  when  the  soil  is  in  good  con- 
dition. 

Distance  depends  upon  variety.  The  usual  distance  is 
six  feet  apart  each  way,  for  the  standard  growers,  but 
some  plant  more  widely,  even  to  seven  and  eight  feet  each 
way,  and  dwarf  varieties  are  set  at  intervals  of  four  feet. 

Summer  Treatment. — Very  seldom  is  any  effort  made 
even  in  garden  culture  to  support  the  plant  above  the 
earth  surface.  As  the  crop  is  almost  wholly  grown  with- 
out irrigation  or  with  sub-irrigation  by  seepage  from 
ditches,  the  earth  surface  is  always  warm  and  dry,  and 
rot  is  almost  unknown.  The  soil  should  be  cultivated  as 
long  as  it  can  be  done  without  injury  to  the  prostrate 
plants.  Well-grown  plants  on  rich  soils  almost  cover  the 
surface  even  when  given  the  widest  distances. 

It  is  commonly  believed  that  excessive  growth  of  foliage 
retards  ripening  and  reduces  fruitage.  Whenever  this  oc- 
curs, as  on  very  rich  and  moist  interior  soils,  free  cutting 
back  of  the  plants  with  a  scythe,  is  practiced  with  good 
results.  Summer  pruning  of  over-rank  garden  plants  is 
also  desirable,  and  may  cause  the  fruit  to  set  rather  than 
drop  in  the  blossom. 

Irrigation. — As  already  stated,  the  tomato  abhors  dry 
soil,  and  in  some  situations  irrigation  is  essential.  Care 
must  be  had  against  over-irrigation,  especially  in  the  coast 
region,  where  proper  planting  and  cultivation  will  give 
satisfactory  results  with  the  natural  moisture.  Not  only 
does  excessive  watering  promote  foilage  at  the  expense  of 
fruit  which  drops  in  the  bloom,  but  it  is  apt  to  give  a 
tomato  which  slices  up  into  cart-wheels  instead  of  firm 
and  solid  discs  of  flesh.  Most  growers  cultivate  too  slackly, 
especially  when  irrigation  water  is  used. 

Irrigation  by  flooding  is  sometimes  successfully  prac- 


TOMATO  VARIETIES.  349 

ticed,  but  application  of  water  which  does  not  wet  the  sur- 
face under  the  plants  is  preferred. 

Picking  Tomatoes. — Tomatoes  for  shipping  should  al- 
ways be  picked  right.  For  such  purpose  the  fruit  should 
be  picked  when  slightly  blushed,  not  by  squeezing  or 
pulling.  Encircle  it  with  all  the  fingers  and  twist  care- 
fully, leaving  the  stem  on  the  vine,  or  rub  it  afterward, 
if  it  parts  from  the  vine.  Do  not  leave  the  stem  end  on 
the  fruit.  Pick  in  shallow  boxes,  not  in  deep  pails  or  bas- 
kets, and  use  two  receivers ;  one  for  perfect  fruit,  the  other 
for  culls.  Do  not  handle  the  fruit  roughly,  even  if  it 
seems  very  firm. 

Yield. — With  all  conditions  favorable,  tomatoes  make  a 
very  large  return.  Twelve  and  a  half  to  fifteen  tons  of 
marketable  tomatoes  have  been  gathered  as  an  average 
per  acre  from  large  tracts  in  Alameda  county.  The  largest 
specimen  of  which  the  writer  has  record  was  grown  in  Cal- 
averas  county,  with  the  following  dimensions:  circumfer- 
ence, twenty-two  and  one-half  inches ;  diameter  at  widest 
place,  eight  inches;  weight,  four  and  one-half  pounds. 
Mr.  Ira  W.  Adams  reports  that  he  grew  one  year  one  hun- 
dred and  thirty-six  pounds  of  ripe  tomatoes  from  one  vine, 
and  when  the  frost  came  picked  thirty-four  pounds  of 
green  ones.  This  vine  covered  a  space  of  nearly  eight  feet 
square ;  it  grew  on  the  edge  of  a  ditch  used  for  running 
water  to  blackberry  vines.  It  was  an  instance  of  ample 
irrigation  by  seepage. 

Varieties. — California  grows  all  the  many  improved  to- 
matoes with  which  American  seedsmen  have  enriched  our 
vegetable  list,  and  new  varieties  should  always  be  looked 
for  in  California  seedsmen's  catalogues.  They  always 
offer  choice  yellow  varieties  for  preserving.  Varieties, 
which  include  those  commercially  most  prominent,  are  as 
follows  : 

Sparks  Earliana :  very  early,  tall  growing;  fruit  large, 
smooth,  scarlet ;  flesh  deep  red,  solid. 

Chalk's   Early   Jewel:     nearly   as   early;    fruit   large. 


350  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES. 

smooth,  regular  in  form  and  ripening  evenly ;  bright  scar- 
let ;  continuous  bearing. 

Dwarf  Champion :  low  growing,  upright ;  fruit  medium, 
pink  to  purplish  red,  according  to  locality ;  popular  in  the 
interior  heat,  especially  at  the  south  and  in  the  foothills 
of  central  California. 

Stone :  tall  and  fruitful ;  fruit  large,  smooth,  uniform, 
bright  red,  solid;  widely  popular  in  southern  California 
for  market  and  shipping.  A  Dwarf  Stone,  resembling 
Dwarf  Champion  in  growth  is  also  a  good  shipping  variety 
at  the  south. 

Boulder:  resembling  Stone,  but  much  larger  fruit: 
popular  in  the  coast  district  of  southern  California. 

Ponderosa:  a  strong  growing  vine;  fruit  very  large, 
somewhat  irregular  and  variable  in  color,  usually  light 
red ;  flesh  thick  but  not  always  firm ;  chiefly  grown  in  So- 
noma county  for  canning  and  market. 

Trophy :  vigorous  and  productive ;  fruit  deep  red,  some- 
what irregular,  solid  and  firm  in  the  true'  type,  with  ring- 
mark  at  apex;  chiefly  grown  for  canning  in  Alameda 
county,  displacing  Stone. 

There  is  an  opinion  current  among  California  growers 
that  even  the  best  of  the  Eastern  improved  tomatoes  are 
still  farther  improved  by  California  growing  conditions  if 
constant  selection  is  practiced  to  preserve  the  best  types. 
For  instance  the  "Trophy"  is  very  largely  grown  as  a 
late  tomato  for  canners'  use,  and  planters  insist  upon  se- 
curing California  grown  seed,  but  careless  seed  saving  has 
given  us  Trophies  widely  different  from  the  true  type  and 
very  inferior. 


CHAPTER  XXXIV. 
TURNIPS. 

Turnip. — Brassica  napus. 

French,  navet ;  German,  herbst-riibe ;  Dutch,  raap ; 
Danish,  roe;  Italian,  navone;  Spanish  and  Portuguese, 
nabo. 

Kohl-Rabi. — Brassica  caulo-rapa. 

French,  choux-raves ;  German,  knollkohl ;  Flemish,  raap- 
kool;  Italian,  cavolo-rapa. 

Rutabaga. — Idem. 

French,  choux-navets ;  German,  kohlriibe ;  Dutch,  kool- 
raapen  onder  den  grond ;  Italian,  cavolo  navone. 

These  members  of  the  cabbage  family  are  somewhat 
arbitrarily  classed  as  turnips  for  convenience  and  in  ac- 
cordance with  local  popular  usage.  Kohl-rabi  has  swollen 
stem,  clearly  above  ground;  rutabaga  has  a  swollen  root 
partly  above  ground,  partly  below;  the  turnip  proper  is 
another  species  of  brassica,  which  has  a  swollen  root  and  a 
manner  of  growth  like  rutabaga.  In  California  all  these 
vegetables  take  a  much  lower  rank  in  popularity  and  use- 
fulness than  the  cabbage  group  of  the  same  genus  dis- 
cussed in  a  previous  chapter ;  judged  as  root  crops  they  are 
inferior  in  use  and  esteem  to  the  other  esculent  roots  al- 
ready considered.  They  have  no  local  standing  whatever 
for  stock  purposes,  for  two  reasons  at  least :  they  do  not 
endure  well  our  summer  heat  and  drought,  but  become  a 
prey  to  fungus  and  unthrift ;  they  will  not  rest  and  start 
again  for  larger  root-expansion,  as  do  the  beet  and  the 
carrot.  Such  being  their  weakness  and  perversity,  the 
stock  feeder  abandons  them,  which  he  can  readily  afford 
to  do  in  view  of  the  fact  that  he  has  many  other  more  ser- 
viceable crops.  He  can  have  any  quantity  of  immense 


352  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES. 

beets  and  carrots  which  are  making  their  re-enlargement 
from  the  previous  spring  sowing,  to  feed  in  the  winter ;  he 
can  have  for  late  summer  use,  corn  and  squashes,  which 
grow  riotously  in  summer  heat  which  distresses  the  turnip. 
He  does  well  enough  without  the  turnip,  in  view  of  its  be- 
havior and  his  own  supplies  from  other  sources. 

The  vegetables,  then,  which  we  group  in  this  chapter, 
must  be  estimated  alone  upon  their  table  value,  and  here, 
too,  they  are  afflicted  by  an  ill-disposition.  They  are  not 
good  keepers  in  this  climate,  and,  though  they  can  be 
packed  away  in  sand  for  use  during  our  warm,  rainy  win- 
ter, the  people  have  other  supplies  of  fresher  character  in 
the  winter,  and  do  not  find  either  turnips  or  parsnips  as 
desirable  as  they  are  in  wintry  countries. 

Turnips  and  rutabagas  are  then  reduced  to  claim  popu- 
larity upon  their  excellence  as  quickly  grown  for  immedi- 
ate use  when  mature,  and  under  this  restriction  they  cer- 
tainly enjoy  a  fair  measure  of  popularity.  Kohl-rabi  is 
very  little  used  and  its  narrow  fame  is  chiefly  confined  to 
citizens  of  French  and  German  descent. 

Culture. — The  growth  of  all  these  plants  is  simple  and 
can  be  undertaken  anywhere  in  .Calif  ornia,  providing  their 
dislike  of  summer  heat  and  dry  air  is  borne  in  mind.  The 
culture  methods  prescribed  for  the  beet  and  carrot  befit 
the  turnip  in  the  direction  of  preparation  of  soil,  sowing 
the  seed  and  cultivation.  The  plants  are  hardy  against 
frost  and  can  be  successfully  produced  all  through  our  val- 
ley winters.  Sowing  for  winter  use  may  begin  early  in  the 
fall  on  irrigated  ground  or  as  soon  as  the  rains  fall.  Sow- 
ing for  spring  and  early  summer  can  be  done  at  any  time 
during  the  winter  when  the  soil  is  sufficiently  dry  and 
warm  for  germination  and  growth  of  the  seedling.  In 
valleys  of  heavy  rainfall  and  frosts,  February  sowing  may 
be  best  for  spring  use,  but  in  warmer,  drier  parts  earlier 
sowing  is  desirable.  The  plant  needs  adequate  moisture 
and  a  moderate  temperature,  and  its  growth  is  a  matter  of 
conditions  not  of  the  calendar.  It  is  plain,  then,  that  tur- 


VARIETIES  OF  TURNIPS.  353 

nips  are  well  adapted  to  winter  gardening  in  California, 
and,  if  pushed  to  maturity  rapidly,  they  will  be  found  very 
tender  and  delicious.  Sowing  for  succession  will  give  tur- 
nips fresh  from  the  soil  in  all  their  excellence  through 
many  months  in  our  warmer  valleys. 

Both  the  flat  turnips  and  the  rutabagas  or  Swedish  tur- 
nips are  grown  in  the  same  way,  and  both  reach  edible  size 
very  quickly  under  favorable  conditions.  Culture  is  like 
that  advised  for  the  radish  except  that  they  need  wider 
spacing.  Rutabagas  are  better  keepers  and  more  service- 
able for  winter  storage  than  flat  turnips,  though  both  are 
mainly  used  fresh  from  the  ground  in  this  State. 

Rutabagas  are  sometimes  transplanted  from  a  seed  bed, 
as  space  becomes  available  here  and  there  in  the  garden 
for  them.  They  are  handled  just  as  cabbage  plants  are. 

Kohl-rabi  is  grown  in  the  same  way  as  common  cabbage, 
both  in  starting  plants  and  planting  out. 

Varieties. — The  flat  turnips  chiefly  grown  are  Early 
White  Dutch  and  Purple  Top  Milan — the  latter  being  pre- 
ferred by  market  gardeners.  The  Purple  Top  Flat  Dutch 
or  Strap  Leaf  and  Purple  Top  White  Globe  are  also  in 
good  favor. 

Rutabagas  are  so  little  grown  that  there  is  doubt  which 
has  the  preference  of  several  good  kinds  listed  by  our 
seedsmen ;  the  Purple  Top  Yellow  or  Long  Island  seem, 
however,  to  be  most  popular. 

Of  kohl-rabi  the  White  Vienna  is  usually  grown. 


CHAPTER  XXXV. 
VEGETABLE  SUNDRIES. 

It  is  not  intended  to  make  this  volume  a  complete  treat- 
ise upon  the  esculent  plants  which  may  be  grown  in  Cali- 
fornia, nor  to  claim  that  it  contains  a  complete  enumera- 
tion of  those  which  are  actually  grown  at  the  present  time. 
Such  a  task  would  be  appalling  in  view  of  the  wide  adapt- 
ability of  the  climate  and  the  fact  that  our  population  in- 
cludes natives  of  every  country  under  the  sun  who  have 
brought  hither  the  plants  which  have  delighted  them  in 
their  old  homes.  Conspicuous  among  such  contributions  to 
our  cultivated  flora  are  the  acquisitions  from  China  and 
Japan,  which  alone  would  require  much  time  to  identify 
and  characterize.  Our  acquisitions  of  minor  vegetables 
from  Europe  are  hardly  less  interesting.  It  must  be  left 
for  some  future  student  to  properly  arrange  all  these  for 
public  information.  In  the  present  work  it  has  been  rather 
the  intention  of  the  writer  to  treat  the  more  conspicuous 
and  widely  useful  vegetables,  because  in  that  line  the 
present  demand  for  information  lies.  An  attempt  will, 
however,  be  made  in  this  chapter  to  briefly  mention  a  few 
plants  concerning  which  inquiry  may  arise  in  the  minds  of 
readers,  and  to  offer  suggestions  on  their  culture. 

Capers. — Capparis  spinosa. 

The  production  of  ''capers"  on  a  commercial  scale  has 
frequently  been  mooted  in  California,  and  so  far  as  the 
local  adoption  of  the  plant  goes,  anticipations  of  success 
seem  to  be  well  placed.  The  plant  thrives  with  moderate 
moisture — enough  could  be  conserved  by  cultivation  on 
any  fairly  retentive  soil.  It  has  been  growing  thriftily  for 
years  on  adobe  soil  in  the  University  garden  in  Berkeley, 


CARDOON  AND  CHERVAL.  355 

and  has  produced  prolifically  the  flower-buds  which  are 
used  in  pickling.  The  labor  of  frequently  hand-picking 
the  buds  must,  however,  be  considered  in  connection  with 
any  projected  enterprise.  A  few  plants  for  the  home  gar- 
den can  be  strongly  commended.  They  can  be  grown  in 
corners  or  in  borders  and  are  decidedly  handsome  in  leaf 
and  blossom.  Plants  may  be  easily  grown  from  seed  in  a 
seed-box  or  can  be  multiplied  by  stem  cuttings  in  a  sand 
box  over  mild  bottom  heat. 

Cardoon. — Cynara  cardunculus. 

The  cardoon  is  closely  related  to  the  globe  artichoke, 
and  resembles  it  in  growth  except  that  it  attains  larger 
size.  Its  edible  part  is,  however,  the  stem  and  midrib  of 
the  leaf,  and  not  the  flower  bud  as  in  the  artichoke.  It  is 
propagated  from  seed  and  not  from  sprouts,  and  to  pro- 
duce satisfactory  quality,  the  seedling  must  be  pushed  to 
quick  growth  by  ample  manure  and  moisture.  The  car- 
doon is  hardy  in  the  coast  region,  and  can  be  grown  for 
autumn  or  spring  use,  or  for  succession  at  nearly  all  times. 
The  plant  is  ready  for  use  in  about  six  months  from  sow- 
ing. During  the  last  three  weeks  the  leaves  are  gathered 
up,  covered  and  blanched,  and  both  leaves  and  root  make 
a  delicate  table  vegetable  when  carefully  boiled. 

Chervil. — Scandix  carefolium  and  CliaeropJiyllum  lulbosum. 

There  are  two  edible  plants  known  as  chervil,  the  first 
furnishes  fragrant  leaves  which  are  used  as  seasoning  and 
in  salad,  the  second  an  edible  root  for  boiling.  The  first  is 
a  hardy  annual,  and  can  be  grown  from  seed,  as  lettuce  is 
— sowing  whenever  moisture  is  adequate.  It  does  not 
thrive  in  high  heat  but  can  be  helped  by  shading  where 
necessary.  The  turnip-rooted  chervil  resembles  a  carrot  in 
form,  and  may  be  grown  as  carrots  are.  The  seed  soon 
loses  its  germinating  power  and  must  be  fresh. 

Corn  Salads. — Valerianella  olitoria  and  eriocarpa. 

Corn  salads  are  popular  winter  growing  salad  plants, 
and  are  of  easy  culture.  The  seed  is  sown  whenever  mois- 
ture is  present  in  the  fall,  and  a  succession  of  foliage  can 


356  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES. 

be  had  all  through  the  rainy  season.  The  culture  is  the 
same  as  for  lettuce.  The  plant  also  resembles  lettuce ;  we 
have  some  varieties  of  open  growth  and  some  which  are 
disposed  to  form  somewhat  compact  heads  of  foliage.  In 
this  State  both  the  French  and  Italian  improved  kinds  are 
hardy  in  California  valley  winters. 

Cress. — Lepidium  sativum,  and  Water  Cress. — Nastur- 
tium officinale. 

Garden  cress  is  easily  grown  all  the  year  in  the  coast 
region  if  the  ground  is  kept  moist.  The  seed  should  be 
sown  at  short  intervals,  as  the  leaves  come  on  very  quickly. 
In  the  interior  it  is  chiefly  a  winter  plant,  as  summer  heat 
checks  leaf  growth  and  carries  the  plant  to  seed.  Water 
cress  has  grown  freely  in  California  ponds  and  pools,  and 
was  found  in  such  places  by  our  earlier  botanists.  In  Cali- 
fornia it  makes  very  rank  growth,  producing  stems  five 
and  six  feet  high  and  proportionate  luxuriance  of  leaf 
growth.  It  usually  volunteers  freely  wherever  water 
stands,  filling  road-side  ditches  and  similar  places.  All  that 
is  needed  is  to  prepare  a  place  suitable  for  its  growth. 

Dandelion. — Leontodon  taraxacum. 

This  plant  has  been  widely  introduced  on  the  moister 
lands  throughout  the  State,  and  is  used  for  salad  and  for 
boiling,  as  it  appears  in  abundance  after  the  fall  rains. 
The  plant  is  also  grown  to  a  limited  extent  by  foreign-born 
market  gardeners,  and  some  of  the  improved  garden  va- 
rieties have  been  introduced  for  their. use.  It  can  be  grown 
as  lettuce  is,  whenever  the  soil  carries  moisture  enough. 

Gherkin. — Cucumis  anguria. 

This  plant  is  different  from  the  small  pickling  cucum- 
bers which  are  often  called  gherkins.  It  is  a  creeping, 
branching  plant,  making  a  dense  mat  of  stems  well  laden 
with  small,  oval  fruit  covered  with  spine-like  protuber- 
ances. It  endures  heat  and  drought  well,  and  is  very  pro- 
lific even  in  interior  situations  in  California. 


MUSHROOMS  AND  MUSTARD.  357 

Kitchen  Herbs. 

It  is  hardly  desirable  to  enumerate  a  list  of  culinary 
herbs.  Each  housewife  has  her  own  information  and  pre- 
ference and  beyond  that  her  cook-book  is  an  encyclopedia. 
Suffice  it  to  say  that  nearly  the  whole  collection  of  plants 
grown  in  northern  climates  for  fragrant  leaves  or  seeds  is 
hardy  in  the  California  winter,  and  most  of  them  do  best 
with  early  sowing — as  soon  as  the  soil  is  well  moistened  by 
the  fall  rains.  Most  failures  with  them  are  traceable  to 
sowing  too  late,  which  comes  from  following  Eastern  prac- 
tice. Where  the  winter  is  quite  frosty,  fall  sowing  is  less 
desirable,  but  with  February  warmth  the  seed  should  be 
in  the  ground.  Early  sowing  enables  the  plants  to  secure 
good  rooting,  and  with  that,  growth  can  be  carried  later 
in  the  dry  season.  Late  sowing  causes  many  a  plant  to 
dwindle  in  the  summer  heat  even  if  irrigation  is  afforded. 
It  must  also  be  remembered  that  many  plants  must  be  dili- 
gently cultivated  during  our  dry  season  which  thrive  with- 
out it  in  the  humid  summer  of  other  countries. 

Mushrooms. 

Field  growth  of  mushrooms  is  abundant  during  the 
rainy  season  in  California — especially  do  the  fall  rains 
bring  to  view  such  great  quantities  of  them  that  they  can 
be  easily  gathered  by  bushels.  The  list  of  edible  mush- 
rooms in  California  includes  many  species  which  afford  a 
fine  field  of  mycological  epicures.  Recently  there  has 
arisen  quite  a  producing  interest  in  the  line  of  cellar  cul- 
ture of  mushrooms  chiefly  by  foreigners,  and  their  methods 
are  essentially  the  same  that  are  practised  elsewhere,  de- 
scriptions of  which  are  readily  available.  Publications  on 
the  subject  may  be  had  free  on  application  to  the  Secre- 
tary of  Agriculture  at  Washington  which  will  give  the 
inquirer  a  good  outline  of  arrangement  and  methods. 

Mustard. — Sinapis  sp. 

Mustard  is  a  grievous  weed  in  California,  especially  on 
rich  soils  with  moisture.  It  is  also  sometimes  very  profit- 


358  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES. 

able  as  grown  for  a  seed  crop.  The  young  plant  is  sought 
in  the  fields  as  a  salad  and  improved  varieties  are  culti- 
vated to  some  extent.  Both  the  white  and  the  large  cab- 
bage-leaved Chinese  kind  are  grown.  The  culture  is  most 
easy  and  simple,  the  treatment  being  the  same  as  that  of 
lettuce. 

Nasturtium. — Tropaeolum. 

Nasturtiums  are  largely  grown  as  ornamental  plants,  but 
the  desirability  of  the  flowers  for  the  garnishing  of  salads 
and  the  use  of  the  flower  buds  and  green  seed  for  pickling 
and  as  a  substitute  for  capers  gives  the  plants  place  in  the 
vegetable  garden.  They  thrive  almost  without  care  or 
watering  in  a  corner  of  the  garden,  though  better  growth 
will  show  their  appreciation  of  better  treatment.  They 
volunteer  freely  in  California  from  self-sown  seed  and  con- 
tinue growth  all  through  the  frost-free  season.  They  can 
be  trained  on  fence  or  trellis  or  allowed  free  range  as  pros- 
trate plants  if  space  permits;  or  dwarf  varieties  may  be 
chosen,  as  they  bloom  and  fruit  freely  with  less  extension. 
They  require  little  more  from  the  grower  than  the  cover- 
ing of  the  seed  in  soil  moist  enough  for  germination. 

Okra  or  Gumbo. — Hibiscus  esculentus. 

This  popular  vegetable  of  the  south  is  not  largely  grown 
in  California  but  can  usually  be  had  from  market  garden- 
ers. It  requires  generous  moisture  supply  to  thrive  and 
does  not  take  at  all  kindly  to  dry  heat.  Plants  may  be 
started  in  the  winter  in  the  ways  described  for  the  tomato, 
and  the  planting  out  and  treatment  is  like  that  of  egg 
plants;  or  seed  may  be  sown  for  later  crop  in  the  open 
ground  in  drills,  the  plants  being  subsequently  thinned  to 
about  a  foot  apart.  The  plants  should  be  well  cultivated 
and  kept  well  supplied  with  water.  The  Long  Green  and 
the  White  Velvet  are  the  varieties  chiefly  grown. 

Parsley. — Apium  petroselinum. 

Parsley  can  be  readily  grown  in  California  by  the  use  of 
a  raised  bed  for  fall  sowing  for  winter  use  and  by  sowing 


ROSELLE.  359 

in  the  early  spring  for  flat  culture  for  summer  use.  The 
culture  is  like  that  for  lettuce  except  that  the  plants  need 
wider  spacing  and  extra  care  has  to  be  taken  to  protect 
the  seed  from  drying  out,  as  it  is  long  in  germinating  and 
can  not  be  deeply  covered.  Good  firming  .of  the  ground 
after  previous  deep  culture  is  desirable,  and  a  light  mulch 
will  help  to  retain  moisture  and  facilitate  watering  with- 
out crusting  the  ground. 

Roselle. — Hibiscus  subdariffa. 

This  interesting  plant,  resembling  in  its  growth  okra  or 
gumbo,  is  a  native  of  tropical  Asia  and  Africa,  and  has 
been  widely  distributed  through  semi-tropical  countries, 
where  it  has  been  found  to  possess  considerable  resistance 
to  drought  and  to  yield  very  acceptable  food  products.  It 
has  recently  been  introduced  in  California — the  seed  hav- 
ing been  distributed  by  the  State  University.  The  plant  is 
very  ornamental,  the  dark  red  stems  and  pods  showing 
through  the  rather  scant  dark  green  foliage.  The  flowers 
are  of  a  yellowish  white  with  a  dark  red  center,  two  in- 
ches across  and  lasting  only  an  hour  or  so  during  fair 
weather.  The  juice  extracted  from  the  fleshy  calyces  or 
husks  is  used  with  water  to  make  an  acidulous  cooling 
drink,  but  is  of  most  value  in  jelly-making.  The  muci- 
laginous properties  of  the  juice  render  the  "setting"  of  the 
jelly  certain,  with  a  reasonable  amount  of  cooking.  The 
dark  sherry  color  of  the  jelly  and  the  sprightly  acid  make 
it  nearly  if  not  equal  to  currant  jelly.  Irrigated  plants 
produce  a  more  highly  colored  fruit,  but  come  into  bearnig 
later.  Unirrigated  plants  put  their  strength  into  fruit,  but 
the  irrigated  plants  start  lateral  branches,  which  ulti- 
mately produce  several  pods,  while  the  unirrigated  plants 
have  but  one  pod.  As  the  plant  will  endure  quite  heated 
and  arid  situations,  it  promises  to  be  of  much  value  for 
jelly-making  where  currants  do  not  thrive.  The  plant 
should  be  given  ordinary  garden  culture,  sowing  the  seed 
when  danger  of  frost  is  over.  Enough  of  the  pods  should 
be  allowed  to  ripen  to  yield  seed  for  the  following  year. 


360  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES. 

Sea  Kale. — Crambe  maritima. 

This  plant  is  but  little  grown  in  California,  and  then  only 
by  professional  gardeners.  It  requires  long  use  of  the 
ground  and  considerable  attention  in  provision  for  blanch- 
ing. Plants  may  be  grown  from  seed,  if  it  is  fresh,  as  to- 
mato plants  are  grown,  and  planted  out  at  about  three  feet 
apart  each  way.  Plants  can  also  be  grown  from  root  cut- 
tings as  described  for  horse-radish,  placing  them  about 
three  feet  apart  each  way.  Plants  from  root  cuttings 
should  be  allowed  free  growth  for  at  least  one  year,  and 
seedlings  twice  as  long.  Preparation  for  use  consists  in 
covering  the  plant  with  an  inverted  pot  or  box  as  the 
shoots  appear  and  allowing  it  to  make  its  growth  in  the 
dark,  thus  producing  blanched  and  tender  midribs.  In 
cutting,  the  knife  should  go  below  the  root  crown,  as  new 
shoots  come  readily  from  below.  Old  roots  are  productive 
for  many  years  if  allowed  to  grow  freely  but  not  to  form 
seed  after  the  early  growth  is  cut  for  use. 

Soy  Bean. — -Soja  liispida. 

This  plant  has  been  tried  and  discarded  by  a  number  of 
growers  as  unthrifty  in  our  dry  summer,  but  good  crops 
are  grown  on  low,  moist  lands  especially  by  the  Oriental 
element  of  our  population. 

Square-pod  Pea. — Lotus  tetragonolobus. 

This  plant  has  recently  acquired  some  little  popularity 
in  California  as  a  table  vegetable.  It  will  make  a  good  win- 
ter growth  in  some  regions  of  the  State,  though  a  little 
spring  heat  is  more  pleasing  to  it.  Its  culture  is  like  that 
of  garden  peas,  and,  if  sown  during  the  rainy  season,  will 
bear  an  abundance  of  edible  pods  for  early  spring  use.  The 
pods  should  be  gathered  When  young  and  tender  and  are 
cooked  like  string  beans. 

Chinese  Yam. — Dioscoria  batatas. 

This  climbing  plant  grows  thriftily  in  California  and 
sends  its  fleshy  roots,  which  are  the  edible  part,  so  deep 
that  it  seems  to  contemplate  return  to  its  native  country. 


A  FOLIAGE  BEET.  361 

To  get  the  roots  one  has  to  dig  a  well  several  feet  deep,  be- 
cause they  are  so  brittle  that  they  will  stand  no  pulling 
whatever.  With  present  prices  of  labor  in  this  country  it 
is  not  profitable  to  go  into  deep  mining  to  get  starchy  food, 
and  the  plant  is  grown  only  as  a  curiosity. 

Chard. — Beta  vulgaris. 

This  plant  is  a  beet  grown  for  its  foliage  and  not  for  its 
root  which  is  small  and  branching.  Its  cultivation  is,  how- 
ever, exactly  like  that  of  the  beet  root,  except  that  its  root- 
ing habit  allows  of  shallower  tillage  but  it  enjoys  good 
conditions  in  the  soil  and  manifests  its  delight  by  grander 
foliage  which  is  very  desirable  and  is  used  as  spinach  is. 
It  is  not  largely  grown  in  California,  because  conditions 
are  so  favorable  for  continual  supplies  of  spinach,  which  is 
preferred. 


INDEX 


Adobe,  improvement  of 44 

April,  work  for 144 

Artichokes    172 

gathering    174 

globe    172 

growing  seedlings   173 

Jerusalem   174,  176 

planting  out    173 

soils  for   173 

varieties  174,  176 

Ashes,   value  of 104 

Asparagus    177 

canning    186 

field   culture    180 

garden  planting 178,  180 

growing  plants   178 

harvesting 183,  185 

localities  for   178 

rust    186 

season    185 

soils  for   176 

varieties    186 

August,  work  for 142 


Beans 
bush 


,188 


thinning    214 

tillage   for    212 

varieties 208,  217,  218 

yield    216 

Birds,   killing    112 

Bordeaux  mixture   Ill 

Borecole    234 

Broccoli    234 

Brussels  sprouts   220,  228 

abbage   221 

field  culture   222,  226 

growing  plants  224 

harvesting    226 

planting  224,  225 

soil   224 

stock    227 

varieties    227 

California  climate  28 

garden  calendar 140 

garden,  satisfaction  in 26 

soils,  excellent   38 

Cans  for  plant  growing 170 

Cantaloups  277 


canning    17 


climbing    204  Carrot 


drying,  storing 195 

field  culture   189,  194 

garden  culture   201 

harvesting    195 

irrigating   205 

localities  for   190 

planting  192,  194 

product    191 

soils  for 191,  210 

threshing    

transplanting    204 

varieties  for  field 198 

Beds,  raised 92 

Beets    206 

garden  culture   206 

stock    217 

sugar   39,  209 

cultivation    212 

harvesting    214 

planting    212 


202  Capers    354 


Cardoon    , 355 


237 


field  culture  238 

ridge  culture 239 

soils   238 

varieties    240 

Cauliflower   221,  229 

garden  culture   231 

growing  plants  230 

planting    231 

varieties    233 

Celeriac   254 

Celery    244 

bleaching    252 

field  culture 249 

garden  culture  246 

growing  plants 249 

growing  plants  249 

harvesting    253 

locations    245 

soils   245 

varieties   .  253 


pulp    217  Chard    361 

season    215  Chervil    355 

soils  and  situations 210  Chick  pea 309 


364 


INDEX. 


Chicory   

culture    

drying  and  roasting 

harvesting  and  curing 

soil    

yield  and  value 

Chives   

Ciboule    

Climate  of  California 28, 

coast  valleys   

early  regions 

frostless  places 

interior  lowlands  

mountain  valleys  

plains  and  foothills 

thermal  belts 30; 

Cloth  for  covering  beds,  etc. . 

Cloudiness  and  sunshine 

Cold  frame,  the 

Collards 221, 

Corn     

culture   

ensilage    

locations   

planting    

soil    

varieties    

Corn  salad   

Cress    

Cucumbers   

culture   

locations  for   

varieties    

Cultivation    (see  tillage) 

flat    

garden 

summer 87,  136, 

Cuttings  and  layers 


Dandelion  

December,  work  for. . .  . 

Ditches,  irrigation 

Drainage  in  California  . 

benefits  of  

conditions  demanding 

not  always  necessary. 

surface    

under  drainage 

with  irrigation 

Drying  vegetables  


Earliest  regions 

Egg  plant 

culture    

locations  for   , 
varieties    . 


255 
256 
257 
256 
256 
256 
303 
303 
128 
29 
32 
36 
30 
33 
32 
32 
166 
34 
162 
235 
259 
263 
264 
259 
260 
260 
264 
355 
356 
266 
267 
266 
269 
82 
.   93 
.   88 
138 
,168 

,356 
,143 

,  68 
,  74 
,  75 
,  77 
.  76 
,  76 
,  77 
79 
.  17 

,  36 
270 
,271 
270 
,271 


Endive     257 

Engines,   gasoline    52 

steam    52 

Farm  gardens   20 

benefits  of    23 

economics  of   23 

profitable    24 

programmes     153 

social  advantages  of 25 

February,   work   for 143 

Fences     131 

Fertilizers  in  California 96 

Forcing  in  California 155 

Frostless  places    36 

Frost,  effects  on  vegetables... 

36,    151 

occurrences  of    147 

protection     107 

Fungi,  remedies  for Ill 

Furrow  irrigation    67 

Garden,  arrangement   129 

calendar    140 

drainage     74 

essentials  to  success  in ....   20 

horse  work  in 131 

insects 107 

location  of   129 

place  in  mixed  farming. ...   26 

practice,  diversity  in 17 

protection    104 

succession  and  rotation. . . . 

. 133,   140,   152 

unirrigated    47 

weeds    116 

winds  and  frosts  106 

work  seasonable   138 

arlic    302 

Germination,  conditions  for..  157 

Gherkin     356 

ophers    113 

Gumbo    358 

Hilling    93 

Hillside  irrigation 68 

Hills,   transplanting    169 

Hoe  in  California    89 

Horse  radisn   — 

Horse  work,  arrangement  for.131 

Hot-bed,   the    163 

Hot  box,  the 164 

Hydraulic  rams    54 

[nsects,  remedies  for 107 

Irrigation,  garden   47 

advantages  of   47 


INDEX. 


365 


and  drainage 

check  system  

current  wheels   

furrow  system   

hillside    

how  much    

hydraulic  rams    

money  value  of 

must  be  adequate 

permanent  ditch  system... 

picturesque    

pumps    

raised  beds   

reservoirs    

ridge  system  

seepage    

siphons    

sprinkling    

sources  of  48, 


79  May,  work  for 144 

61  Melons    277 

53  cantaloups    277 

67      culture    278,  280 

67      muskmelon    277 

72      varieties    283 

54  watermelon   277,  285 

50      culture     286 

72      locations  for   285 

62  harvesting    287 

66      varieties    287 

52  Mole 115 

92  Mulch,  earth    84 

55  Mulching    159 

65  Mushrooms    357 

65  Muskmelons    277 

54jMustard    357 

69! 

^Nasturtium   .  ..358 


sub-irngatio^ 69  g^SKT^*  'for: !  I '. '. '. '. '.  '.UZ 

Will  it; I      r~f i  JL 


January,  work  for 143 

Jersey  kale   221 

July,  work  for 141 

June,  work  for 145 

Kale  or  borecole 221 

Jersey    221 

Oregon    235 

sea    360 

Kerosene  emulsion  110 

Kitchen  herbs  357 

Kohl-rabi    .  ..353 


Leek 


Lentil     309 

Lettuce    272  Parsley 


culture   273 

seed  growing 126 

varieties    275 

Lime,  uses  of  44 

Manures,  absorbents  of......  103 

animal    '. . .   96 

as  mulch 104 

bone    105 

composting  100,  101 

deterioration  of  98 

liquid    103 

tanks  for  100  Peppers 

March,  work  for 144 

Moisture,  absorption  of 84 

conditions  of  84 

conservation  of 85,  87 

must  be  adequate 72  Plow,  use  of. 


October,  work  for 142 

Okra    358 

Onions    289 

culture    290,  299 

irrigation    298 

harvesting    298 

localities    290 

seed  growing 123 

seed   planting    292 

sets     296 

soils   290 

transplanting   294 

varieties    300 

Orchard,  vegetables  in 133 


.358 


Parsnip 237,  241 

soils  and  culture 241 

varieties  242 

Peas  304 

culture  306 

early  306 

field  culture  307 

soils  and  situations 305 

sugar  peas  309 

varieties  308 

squarepod  360 

Peat  soils  for  vegetables 42 

311 

culture  312 

varieties  315 

Planting  season   138 

Planting  time,  tables 145 


83 


366 


INDEX. 


Potatoes  316 

culture  320 

harvesting  322 

irrigation  321 

mulching 322 

season  318 

situations  317 

soils  319 

storing  322 

sweet  323 

varieties  323 

Propagation  155 

cold  frame  162 

covering  beds  166 

cuttings  and  layers... 168 

from  seed  166 

hills  for  transplanting 169 

hot-bed  163 

hot  box  164 

seed-boxes  141 

seedlings,  handling  167 

warm  heap  165 

watering  in  165 

Pumpkins    337 

Pumps,  Chinese  52 

service  of 52 

Radishes    328 

culture   328 

varieties    329 

Rainfall,  occurrence  of 35 

Raised  beds  92 

Reservoir  construction  ...  .49,  55 

subterranean   51,  56 

Rhubarb    331 

culture    331 

planting  332 

seedlings    332 

treatment   : 332 

varieties    334 

Ridge  culture 65,  91 

Roselle   359 

Rutabaga    351 

Salsify  237,  243 

culture   243 

varieties    243 

Sandy  soil,  improvement  of . .   46 

Sea  kale   360 

Seed-boxes    161 

covering    157 

firming  soil  for 158 

mulching    159 

planting  conditions  of 158 


Seed  growing  in  California.  .120 

lettuce   124 

onion    123 

other  seed  123,  126 

preparation  for  market 127 

Seedlings,  planting   168 

September,  work  for 142 

Shallot    303 

Soils,  adobe  44 

alluvial    42 

deep  not  essential  46 

vegetable  of  California 37 

desirable  characters  of.. 38,  40 

improvement  of 44,  45,  46 

light  soils  preferred 38 

peat    42 

sediment  42 

Soy  bean  360 

Spinach    335 

culture    335 

New  Zealand 336 

varieties    336 

Square  pod  pea 360 

Squashes    337 

culture    340 

large    337 

varieties    341 

Squirrels    112 

Sub-irrigation    69 

Summer  fallow 82 

Sweet  potatoes 323 

culture   324 

harvesting    326 

growing  plants 324 

planting    325 

storing     326 

varieties    .  327 


Trench  irrigation  70 

Tillage,  early  87 

flat   93 

for  absorption 82 

for  retention  84 

to  release  moisture 94 

with  irrigation 90 

Tomato    343 

canning 17 

culture   344,  347 

growing  plants  344 

irrigation    348 

localities    343 

planting  out  347 

requirements  343 

varieties    349 

yield    349 


INDEX. 


367 


Turnip  351 

culture    352 

varieties    353 

Under  drainage  77 

Vegetables,  canning  and  dry- 
ing    17 

at  missions  13 

by   foreigners    15 

chance  for  Americans 15 

cheaper  bought 19,  22 

climatic  requirements 34 

forcing   155 

furnish  capital  for  fruit...  11 

growing  in  California 9 

in  your  orchard 133,  308 

pioneer    9 

shipping    16 

soils  for   37 

weights  and  sizes 10 


Water,  importance  of 20 

application  of   61 

lifting  devices 51 

requirements  of  soils   72 

supply,  sources  of 48,  51 

Watermelon  277 

Waterproof  cloth   166 

Weeds  in  California 116 

Wells,  artesian  51 

Will,  water,  work 20 

Windbreaks   106 

Windmills,  service  of 52,  65 

Winter  gardening   35 

irrigation    71 

Wheels,  current  53 

Work,  importance  of 20 

for  the  months 140 

seasonable  .  . . 138 


Yam 


,360 


Vegetable  sundries  354 i Year,  division  of  garden 141 


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